Chronology of multiphase emplacement of the Salmi rapakivi granite-anorthosite complex, Baltic Shield: implications for magmatic evolution

The U-Pb dating of 18 samples, representing the principal rock types of the 4000 km² Salmi anorthosite-rapakivi granite complex and its satellite Uljalegi pluton, southeastern Baltic (Fennoscandian) Shield, reveals that six temporally distinct episodes of igneous activity occurred in a timespan of 17 million years. From oldest to youngest they are: (1) gabbronorite and monzonite at 1546.7 Ma; (2) syenogranite at 1543.4 Ma; (3) early wiborgite and pyterlite at 1540.6–1537.9 Ma; (4) biotite granite and more evolved granite at 1538.4–1535 Ma; (5) late pyterlite at 1535.2 Ma; (6) olivine gabbro and biotite-amphibole granite at 1530 Ma. The resolvable intervals between magmatic episodes are 3.5–5.0 million years. Early wiborgite and pyterlite (3, above) and biotite granite (4, above) probably crystallized from multiple magma intrusions. Age differences of 3.4±1.5 million years between zircon and baddeleyite in olivine gabbro (6, above) are probably a result of xenocrystic origin of baddeleyite extracted from an earlier mafic phase of the Salmi complex. The ages and chemical features of early and late zircon populations, together with our modeling of magma crystallization and zircon growth, show that the duration of magma crystallization and Pb-diffusion in zircon was short lived and insignificant compared to the precision of dating of about ±1–2 million years. Hence, the range of U-Pb ages for each of the major rock types may approximate the emplacement intervals of their respective magmas. Average rate of magma emplacement was about 0.01 km³/year for the most voluminous phase of early biotite-amphibole rapakivi granite, and about 0.0024 km³/year for the Salmi complex as a whole. Compositional changes of the Salmi magmas over time are in agreement with the model of magmatism related to lithospheric extension. Received: 2 August 1996 / Accepted 19 December 1996     

Chromium solubility in anhydrous Phase B

The crystal structure and chemical composition of a crystal of (Mg_14?x Cr _x )(Si_5?x Cr _x )O₂₄ (x ≈ 0.30) anhydrous Phase B (Anh-B) synthesized in the model system MgCr₂O₄–Mg₂SiO₄ at 12 GPa and 1600 °C have been investigated. The compound was found to be orthorhombic, space group Pmcb, with lattice parameters a = 5.900(1), b = 14.218(2), c = 10.029(2) Å, V = 841.3(2) Å³ and Z = 2. The structure was refined to R ₁ = 0.065 using 1492 independent reflections. Chromium was found to substitute for both Mg at the M3 site (with a mean bond distance of 2.145 Å) and Si at the octahedral Si1 site (mean bond distance: 1.856 Å), according to the reaction Mg²⁺ + Si⁴⁺ = 2Cr³⁺. Such substitutions cause a reduction in the volume of the M3 site and an increase in the volume of the Si-dominant octahedron with respect to the values typically observed for pure Anh-B and Fe²⁺-bearing Anh-B. Taking into account that Cr³⁺ is not expected to be Jahn–Teller active, it appears that both the Cr³⁺–for–Mg and Cr³⁺–for–Si substitutions in the Anh-B structure decrease the distortion of the octahedra. Electron microprobe analysis gave the Mg_13.66(8)Si_4.70(6)Cr_0.62(4)O₂₄ stoichiometry for the studied phase. The successful synthesis of this phase provides new information for the possible mineral assemblages occurring in the Earth’s deep upper mantle and shed new light on the so-called X discontinuity that has been observed at 275–345 km depth in several subcontinental and subduction zone environments.     

The Chelyabinsk Meteorite as a multiple source of acoustic and seismic waves

Shock waves and impact of the Chelyabinsk Meteorite fragments on the ground initiated various waves in the atmosphere and the earth. Three different sources of seismic and infrasound waves were found by arrival time and azimuth of seismic and infrasound waves recorded by the International Monitoring System.     

Mud volcanoes and gas vents in the Okhotsk Sea area

Gas emissions from mud volcanoes on Sakhalin Island and water-column gas flares arising from cold seeps in the Okhotsk Sea appear to be related. They are likely activated by tectonic movements along the transform plate boundary separating the Okhotsk Sea Plate from the Eurasian and Amur plates. Gas vents (flares) and methane anomalies occur in the waters offshore Sakhalin Island, along with NE-SW-trending mounds and fluid escape structures on the seafloor. The intersection of the NE-striking transverse faults on land with the Central Sakhalin and Hokkaido-Sakhalin shear zones apparently determines the sites of mud volcanoes, a pattern that continues offshore where the intersection with the East Sakhalin and West Derugin shear zones determines the sites of the submarine gas vents.     

Climate-induced boreal forest change: Predictions versus current observations

For about three decades, there have been many predictions of the potential ecological response in boreal regions to the currently warmer conditions. In essence, a widespread, naturally occurring experiment has been conducted over time. In this paper, we describe previously modeled predictions of ecological change in boreal Alaska, Canada and Russia, and then we investigate potential evidence of current climate-induced change. For instance, ecological models have suggested that warming will induce the northern and upslope migration of the treeline and an alteration in the current mosaic structure of boreal forests. We present evidence of the migration of keystone ecosystems in the upland and lowland treeline of mountainous regions across southern Siberia. Ecological models have also predicted a moisture-stress-related dieback in white spruce trees in Alaska, and current investigations show that as temperatures increase, white spruce tree growth is declining. Additionally, it was suggested that increases in infestation and wildfire disturbance would be catalysts that precipitate the alteration of the current mosaic forest composition. In Siberia, 7 of the last 9 yr have resulted in extreme fire seasons, and extreme fire years have also been more frequent in both Alaska and Canada. In addition, Alaska has experienced extreme and geographically expansive multi-year outbreaks of the spruce beetle, which had been previously limited by the cold, moist environment. We suggest that there is substantial evidence throughout the circumboreal region to conclude that the biosphere within the boreal terrestrial environment has already responded to the transient effects of climate change. Additionally, temperature increases and warming-induced change are progressing faster than had been predicted in some regions, suggesting a potential non-linear rapid response to changes in climate, as opposed to the predicted slow linear response to climate change.     

Resolution of MRS applied to the characterization of hard-rock aquifers

The performance of the Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) method applied to the investigation of heterogeneous hard-rock aquifers was studied. It was shown using both numerical modeling and field measurements that MRS could be applied to the investigation of the weathered part of hard-rock aquifers when the product of the free water content multiplied by the thickness of the aquifer is >0.2 (for example, 10-m-thick layer with a 2% water content). Using a currently available one-dimensional MRS system, the method allows the characterization of two-dimensional subsurface structures with acceptable accuracy when the size of the subsurface anomaly is equal to or greater than the MRS loop. However, the fractured part of hard-rock aquifers characterized by low effective porosity (<0.5%) cannot be resolved using currently available MRS equipment. It was found that shallow water in the weathered part of the aquifer may screen MRS signals from deeper water-saturated layers, thus further reducing the possibility of investigating deeper fractured aquifers. A field study using the NUMIS(plus) MRS system developed by IRIS Instruments was carried out on an experimental watershed in southern India. A heterogeneous unconfined aquifer in a gneissic formation was successfully localized, and MRS results were confirmed by drilling shortly after the geophysical study. The top of the aquifer revealed by MRS was found to be in a good agreement with observed static water level measurements in boreholes.