Breaking waves in deep water: measurements and modeling of energy dissipation

Ocean Dynamics - In the presence of strong winds, ocean surface waves dissipate significant amounts of energy by breaking. Here, breaking rates and wave-following turbulent dissipation rate...     

Wave impacts on coastal cliffs: Do bigger waves drive greater ground motion?

Coastal cliff erosion is caused by a combination of marine forcing and sub-aerial processes, but linking cliff erosion to the environmental drivers remains challenging. One key component of these drivers is energy transfer from wave–cliff interaction. The aim of this study is to directly observe cliff ground motion in response to wave impacts at an individual wave scale. Measurements are described from two coastal cliff sites: a 45-minute pilot study in southern California, USA and a 30-day deployment in Taranaki, New Zealand. Seismometers, pressure sensors and video are used to compare cliff-top ground motions with water depth, significant wave height (H_s) and wave impact types to examine cliff ground motion response. Analyses of the dataset demonstrate that individual impact events can be discriminated as discrete events in the seismic signal. Hourly mean ground motion increases with incident H_s, but the largest hourly peak ground motions occurred across a broad range of incident H_s (0.9–3.7 m), including during relatively calm conditions. Mean hourly metrics therefore smooth the short-term dynamics of wave–cliff interaction; hence, to fully assess wave impact energy transfer to cliffs, it is important also to consider peak ground motion. Video analyses showed that the dominant control on peak ground motion magnitude was wave impact type rather than incident H_s. Wave–cliff impacts where breaking occurs directly onto the cliff face consistently produced greater ground motion compared to broken or unbroken wave impacts: breaking, broken and unbroken impacts averaged peak ground motion of 287, 59 and 38 μm s⁻¹, respectively. The results illustrate a novel link between wave impact forcing and cliff ground motion response using individual wave field measurements, and highlight the influence of wave impact type on peak energy transfer to coastal cliffs. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Influences of subsurface heterogeneity and vegetation cover on soil moisture, surface temperature and evapotranspiration at hillslope scales

Physical processes are at the root of determining hydrologic response at all scales. Here, the physical mechanisms linking (1) subsurface heterogeneities to soil moisture and (2) resulting land-surface energy feedbacks to the atmosphere, are examined at the hillslope scale using a fully coupled surface-subsurface-land-surface model, ParFlow. A hillslope with a heterogeneous subsurface and uniform topography was modeled numerically using summer atmospheric conditions and a single precipitation event under controlled boundary conditions in order to isolate the contribution of hydraulic conductivity to land-surface hydrological processes and energy interactions. Patterns of subsurface hydraulic conductivity are shown to govern soil-moisture distribution at the hillslope scale following precipitation. This variability in soil moisture is closely linked to the variability in land-surface energy feedbacks. The role that vegetation plays in subsurface soil moisture and land energy communications is also examined. Results show that hillslope soil moisture variation is first established by patterns in vertical hydraulic conductivity, while later on in the dry-down period, vegetation exerts greater control on the land-surface energy fluxes and controls the rate of hillslope dry down. Furthermore, as compared to bare-soil simulations, grass-cover simulations show an increase in near-surface soil moisture despite water up-take along the rooting depth.     

Nanogeochemistry of hydrothermal magnetite

Magnetite from hydrothermal ore deposits can contain up to tens of thousands of parts per million (ppm) of elements such as Ti, Si, V, Al, Ca, Mg, Na, which tend to either structurally incorporate into growth and sector zones or form mineral micro- to nano-sized particles. Here, we report micro- to nano-structural and chemical data of hydrothermal magnetite from the Los Colorados iron oxide–apatite deposit in Chile, where magnetite displays both types of trace element incorporation. Three generations of magnetites (X–Z) were identified with concentrations of minor and trace elements that vary significantly: SiO₂, from below detection limit (bdl) to 3.1 wt%; Al₂O₃, 0.3–2.3 wt%; CaO, bdl–0.9 wt%; MgO, 0.02–2.5 wt%; TiO₂, 0.1–0.4 wt%; MnO, 0.04–0.2 wt%; Na₂O, bdl–0.4 wt%; and K₂O, bdl–0.4 wt%. An exception is V₂O₃, which is remarkably constant, ranging from 0.3 to 0.4 wt%. Six types of crystalline nanoparticles (NPs) were identified by means of transmission electron microscopy in the trace element-rich zones, which are each a few micrometres wide: (1) diopside, (2) clinoenstatite; (3) amphibole, (4) mica, (5) ulvöspinel, and (6) Ti-rich magnetite. In addition, Al-rich nanodomains, which contain 2–3 wt% of Al, occur within a single crystal of magnetite. The accumulation of NPs in the trace element-rich zones suggest that they form owing to supersaturation from a hydrothermal fluid, followed by entrapment during continuous growth of the magnetite surface. It is also concluded that mineral NPs promote exsolution of new phases from the mineral host, otherwise preserved as structurally bound trace elements. The presence of abundant mineral NPs in magnetite points to a complex incorporation of trace elements during growth, and provides a cautionary note on the interpretation of micron-scale chemical data of magnetite.     

Paleozoic northward drift of the North Tien Shan (Central Asia) as revealed by Ordovician and Carboniferous paleomagnetism

Three new Middle–Late Ordovician and two new Early Carboniferous paleomagnetic poles have been obtained from the North Tien Shan Zone (NTZ) of the Ural–Mongol belt in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Paleolatitudes for the Carboniferous are unambiguously northerly and average 15.5°N, whereas the Ordovician paleolatitudes (6°, 9°, and 9°) are inferred to be southerly, given that a very large (180°) rotation of the NTZ would be necessary during the middle Paleozoic if the other polarity option was chosen. Thus, the NTZ drifted northward during much of the Paleozoic; east–west drift cannot be determined, as is well known, from paleomagnetic data. In addition, detailed thermal demagnetization analysis reveals two overprints, one of recent age and the other of Permian age, which is a time of strong deformation in the NTZ. The paleolatitude of the combined Permian overprint is 30.5+2°N. The paleolatitudes collectively track those predicted for the area by extrapolation from Baltica very well, but are different from those of Siberia for Ordovician times. This finding is compatible with Sengör and Natal'in's [Sengör, A.M.C., Natal'in, B.A., 1996. Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments of a synthesis. In: Yin A., Harrison, M. (Eds.), The Tectonic Evolution of Asia. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, pp. 486–640] model of tectonic evolution of the Ural–Mongol belt and disagrees with the models of other researchers. Declinations of the Ordovician and Early Carboniferous results range from northwesterly to northeasterly, and are clearly affected by local relative rotations, which seem characteristic for the entire NTZ, because the Permian overprint declinations also show such a spread. Apparently, the important latest Paleozoic–Triassic deformation involved shear zone-related rotations as well as folding and significant granitic intrusions.     

The partitioning behavior of silver in a vapor-brine-rhyolite melt assemblage

The partitioning of silver in a sulfur-free rhyolite melt-vapor-brine assemblage has been quantified at 800 °C, pressures of 100 and 140 MPa and f_O2≈NNO (nickel-nickel oxide). Silver solubility (±2σ) in rhyolite increases 5-fold from 105 ± 21 to 675 ± 98 μg/g as pressure increases from 100 to 140 MPa. Nernst-type partition coefficients describing the mass transfer of silver at 100 MPa between vapor and melt, brine and melt and vapor and brine are 32 ± 30, 1151 ± 238 and 0.026 ± 0.004, respectively. At 140 MPa, values for for vapor and melt, brine and melt, and vapor and brine are 32 ± 10, 413 ± 172 and 0.06 ± 0.03, respectively. Apparent equilibrium constant values (±2σ) describing the exchange of silver and sodium between vapor and melt, , at 100 and 140 MPa are 105 ± 68 and 14 ± 6. The average values (±2σ) for silver and sodium exchange between brine and melt, , at 100 and 140 MPa are 313 ± 288 and 65 ± 12. These data indicate that the mass transfer of silver from rhyolite melt to an exsolved volatile phase(s) is enhanced at 100 MPa relative to 140 MPa, suggesting that decompression increases the silver ore-generative potential of an evolving silicate magma. Model calculations using the new data suggest that the evolution of low-density, aqueous fluid (i.e., vapor) may be responsible for the the silver tonnage of many porphyry-type and perhaps epithermal-type ore deposits. For example, Halter et al. (Halter W. E., Pettke T. and Heinrich C. A. (2002) The origin of Cu/Au ratios in porphyry-type ore deposits. Science296, 1842-1844) used detailed silicate and sulfide melt inclusion and vapor and brine fluid inclusions analyses to estimate a melt volume on the order of 15 km³ to satisfy the copper budget at the Bajo de la Alumbrera copper-, gold-, silver-ore deposit. Using their melt volume estimate with the data presented here, model calculations for a 15-km³ felsic melt, saturated with pyrrhotite and magnetite, suggest that a low-salinity magmatic vapor may scavenge on the order of 7 × 10¹² g of silver from the melt. This quantity of silver exceeds the discovered 2 × 10⁹ g of Ag at Alumbrera. Calculated tonnages for numerous other deposits yield similar results. The excess silver in the vapor, remaining after porphyry formation, is then available to precipitate at lower PTconditions in the stratigraphically higher epithermal environment. These data suggest that silver, and perhaps other ore metals, in the porphyry-epithermal continuum may be derived solely from the time-integrated flux of dominantly low-salinity vapor exsolved from a series of sequential magma batches.     

How the Distribution of Anthropogenic Nitrogen Has Changed in Narragansett Bay (RI,USA) Following Major Reductions in Nutrient Loads

Over the past decade, nitrogen (N) loads to Narragansett Bay have decreased by more than 50%. These reductions were, in large part, the direct result of multiple wastewater treatment facility upgrades to tertiary treatment, a process which employs N removal. Here, we document ecosystem response to the N reductions and assess how the distribution of sewage N in Narragansett Bay has changed from before, during, and shortly after the upgrades. While others have observed clear responses when data were considered annually, our seasonal and regional comparisons of pre- and post-tertiary treatment dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) concentrations and Secchi depth data, from bay-wide surveys conducted periodically from the early 1970s through 2016, resulted in only a few subtle differences. Thus, we sought to use stable isotope data to assess how sewage N is incorporated into the ecology of the Bay and how its distribution may have changed after the upgrades. The nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and carbon (δ¹³C) stable isotope measurements of particulate matter served as a proxy for phytoplankton, while macroalgae served as short-term integrators of water column bio-available N, and hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) as integrators of water column production. In contrast to other estuarine stable isotope studies that have observed an increased influence of isotopically lower marine N when sewage N is reduced, the opposite has occurred in Narragansett Bay. The tertiary treatment upgrades have increased the effluent δ¹⁵N values by at least 2‰. The plants and animals throughout Narragansett Bay have similarly increased by 1–2‰, on average. In contrast, the δ¹³C values measured in particulate matter and hard clams have declined by about the same amount. The δ¹⁵N results indicated that, even after the N reductions, sewage N still plays an important role in supporting primary and secondary production throughout the bay. However, the δ¹³C suggests that overall net production in Narragansett Bay has decreased. In the 5 years after the major wastewater treatment facilities came on-line for nutrient removal, oligotrophication has begun but sewage remains the dominant source of N to Narragansett Bay.     

Elastic analysis of ground movements around a tunnel considering a buoyant lining moving upwards

A complex variable solution is derived for the ground movements around a tunnel considering the lining at different positions in the drilled hole in a linear elastic half-plane. The soil displacements for three different convergence patterns are presented and compared. It is shown that the surface settlement trough will become flatter and wider when the lining moves upwards; the horizontal displacements are more concentrated in the region below the lining; and the region influenced by displacements is wider. Most calculated settlement troughs can be well represented by Gaussian curves with simple parameters, but the obtained width parameters are larger than the traditional empirical values. The rigorous solution can be used as a simple tool to understand the fundamental mechanism of the lining buoyancy problem and as a benchmark for numerical procedures based on more sophisticated models. The importance of buoyancy effect on the displacement field should be taken into account.     

The effect of sudden critical and supercritical hydraulic loads on backward erosion piping: small-scale experiments

Acta Geotechnica - Backward erosion piping is an important failure mechanism for cohesive water-retaining structures which are founded on a sandy aquifer. This paper studies the effect of the...