老黑山盆地下白垩统穆棱组油页岩与煤含油率控制因素

我国陆相盆地内普遍存在油页岩与煤共生的地质现象。本文以老黑山盆地下白垩统穆棱组油页岩与煤为研究对象,基于工业分析（含油率、灰分、挥发分、全硫和发热量）和有机地球化学分析（有机碳、岩石热解、显微组分和生物标志化合物）,对油页岩与煤含油率的控制因素开展研究。根据含油率等工业品质特征,将研究区油页岩与煤进一步划分为高含油率油页岩（HOS）、低含油率油页岩（LOS）、高含油率煤（HC）和低含油率煤（LC）4种亚类。其中HC的总有机碳质量分数和生烃潜力最高,其次为LC、HOS和LOS,4种亚类的有机质类型以Ⅱ型干酪根为主,均处于未成熟的热演化阶段。沉积环境与有机质来源是控制油页岩与煤含油率的关键因素,HOS主要形成于陆源有机质供给中等的湖沼环境,而HC主要形成于陆源有机质供给丰富的泥炭沼泽环境。油页岩与煤形成时期的高等植物以松科、柏科/杉科、南洋杉科、罗汉松科和蕨类植物为主,这些植物可以提供充足的树脂和蜡质有机质,从而使油页岩与煤具有相对较高的含油率。     

Estimation of friction parameters and laws in 1.5D shallow-water gravity currents on the f-plane, by data assimilation

A 1.5-dimensional, 1.5-layer shallow water model and an ensemble Kalman filter are used to evaluate the feasibility of estimating friction parameters and determining friction laws of oceanic gravity currents. The two friction laws implemented are a linear Rayleigh friction and a quadratic drag law. We demonstrate that the assimilation procedure rapidly estimates the total frictional force, whereas the distinction between the two laws is evolving on a slower time scale. We also demonstrate that parameter estimation can, in this way, choose between different parametrisations and help to discriminate between physical laws of nature by estimating the coefficients presented in such parametrisations.     

Using maximum likelihood to derive various distance-based goodness-of-fit indicators for hydrologic modeling assessment

Currently used goodness-of-fit (GOF) indicators (i.e. efficiency criteria) are largely empirical and different GOF indicators emphasize different aspects of model performance; a thorough assessment of model skill may require the use of robust skill matrices. In this study, based on the maximum likelihood method, a statistical measure termed BC-GED error model is proposed, which firstly uses the Box–Cox (BC) transformation method to remove the heteroscedasticity of model residuals, and then employs the generalized error distribution (GED) with zero-mean to fit the distribution of model residuals after BC transformation. Various distance-based GOF indicators can be explicitly expressed by the BC-GED error model for different values of the BC transformation parameter λ and GED kurtosis coefficient β. Our study proves that (1) the shape of error distribution implied in the GOF indicators affects the model performance on high or low flow discharges because large error-power (β) value can cause low probability of large residuals and small β value will lead to high probability of zero value; (2) the mean absolute error could balance consideration of low and high flow value as its assumed error distribution (i.e. Laplace distribution, where β = 1) is the turning point of GED derivative at zero value. The results of a study performed in the Baocun watershed via comparison of the SWAT model-calibration results using six distance-based GOF indicators show that even though the formal BC-GED is theoretically reasonable, the calibrated model parameters do not always correspond to high performance of model-simulation results because of imperfection of the hydrologic model. However, the derived distance-based GOF indicators using the maximum likelihood method offer an easy way of choosing GOF indicators for different study purposes and developing multi-objective calibration strategies.     

Heat flow anomalies in the Gulf of Cadiz and off Cape San Vincente,Portugal

Heat flow anomalies provide critical information in active tectonic environments. The Gulf of Cadiz and adjacent areas are affected by the plate convergence between Africa and Europe, causing widespread deformation and faulting. Active thrust faults cause lateral movement and advection of heat that produces systematic variations in surface heat flow. In December 2003 new heat flow data were collected during the research vessel Sonne cruise SO175 in the Gulf of Cadiz over two sites of recent focused research activity: (i) the Gulf of Cadiz sedimentary prism and (ii) the Marques de Pombal escarpment. Both features have also been discussed as potential source areas of the Great Lisbon earthquake and tsunami of 1755. Background heat flow at the eastern terminus of the Horseshoe abyssal plain is about 52–59 mW/m². Over the Gulf of Cadiz prism, heat flow decreases from ∼57 mW/m² to unusually low values of 45 mW/m² roughly 120 km eastward. Such low values and the heat flow trend are typical for active thrusting, supporting the idea of an east-dipping thrust fault. Slip rates are 10 ± 5 mm per year, assuming that the fault dips at 2°. A fault dipping at 5°, however, would result into slip rates of 1.5–5 mm per year, suggesting that subduction has largely ceased. Based on seismic data, the Marques de Pombal fault is interpreted as part of an active fault system located ∼100 km westward of Cape San Vincente. Heat flow over the fault is affected by refraction of heat caused by the 1 km high escarpment. Thermal models suggest that the slip rate along the fault must either be small or shear stresses acting on the fault are rather high. With respect to other fault zones, however, it is reasonable to assume that the fault's slip rate is small.     

In situ pore-pressure evolution during dynamic CPT measurements in soft sediments of the western Baltic Sea

We present in situ strength and pore-pressure measurements from 57 dynamic cone penetration tests in sediments of Mecklenburg (n?=?51), Eckernförde (n?=?2) and Gelting (n?=?4) bays, western Baltic Sea, characterised by thick mud layers and partially free microbial gas resulting from the degradation of organic material. In Mecklenburg and Eckernförde bays, sediment sampling by nine gravity cores served sedimentological characterisation, analyses of geotechnical properties, and laboratory shear tests. At selected localities, high-resolution echo-sounder profiles were acquired. Our aim was to deploy a dynamic cone penetrometer (CPT) to infer sediment shear strength and cohesion of the sea bottom as a function of fluid saturation. The results show very variable changes in pore pressure and sediment strength during the CPT deployments. The majority of the CPT measurements (n?=?54) show initially negative pore-pressure values during penetration, and a delayed response towards positive pressures thereafter. This so-called type B pore-pressure signal was recorded in all three bays, and is typically found in soft muds with high water contents and undrained shear strengths of 1.6–6.4 kPa. The type B signal is further affected by displacement of sediment and fluid upon penetration of the lance, skin effects during dynamic profiling, enhanced consolidation and strength of individual horizons, the presence of free gas, and a dilatory response of the sediment. In Mecklenburg Bay, the remaining small number of CPT measurements (n?=?3) show a well-defined peak in both pore pressure and cone resistance during penetration, i.e. an initial marked increase which is followed by exponential pore-pressure decay during dissipation. This so-called type A pore-pressure signal is associated with normally consolidated mud, with indurated clay layers showing significantly higher undrained shear strength (up to 19 kPa). In Eckernförde and Gelting bays pore-pressure response type B is exclusively found, while in Mecklenburg Bay types A and B were detected. Despite the striking similarities in incremental density increase and shear strength behaviour with depth, gas occurrence and subtle variations in the coarse-grained fraction cause distinct pore-pressure curves. Gaseous muds interbedded with silty and sandy layers are most common in the three bays, and the potential effect of free gas (i.e. undersaturated pore space) on in situ strength has to be explored further.     

Geschichte und Ursachen des Röhrichtrückgangs am Ammersee (Deutschland)

The development of aquatic reed stands at Lake Ammersee was documented by using vertical airborne photographs which were taken during four partial and five complete flights beginning in 1944. A dramatic decline of reed, especially of those parts which stood in deep water, was demonstrated. Between the years 1963 and 1969 60% and until 1992 another 30% of the Phragmitetum disappeared. Only at the east bank did the lake reed beds slightly expand.The examination of possible factors affecting the development of reed at Lake Ammersee lead to the following scenario: Until 1940 reed stands at Lake Ammersee spread and covered large aquatic areas. Only the east bank of the lake, where the influence of wind and waves was high, and banks near towns and recreation areas remained uncovered. Since the regulation of the River Ammer between 1920 and 1938 flood occurrence increased enormously. The flood disaster of the year 1965 coincided with the period of the highest rate of reed decline. The peak of eutrophication in the lake was reached in 1975. Huge carpets of green algae caused further retreat of reeds.At the present time recovery is not possible because of the negative influence of human recreation and of reed consuming waterfowl. Interestingly enough an expansion of reed has been observed at the east bank of Lake Ammersee at places were there was no Phragmites previously.     

Liebermannite,KAlSi3O8, a new shock-metamorphic,high-pressure mineral from the Zagami Martian meteorite

In this paper, we discuss the occurrence of liebermannite (IMA 2013-128), KAlSi₃O₈, a new, shock-generated, high-pressure tetragonal hollandite-type structure silicate mineral, in the Zagami basaltic shergottite meteorite. Liebermannite crystallizes in space group I4/m with Z = 2, cell dimensions of a = 9.15 ± 0.14 (1σ) Å, c = 2.74 ± 0.13 Å, and a cell volume of 229 ± 19 Å³ (for the type material), as revealed by synchrotron diffraction. In Zagami, liebermannite likely formed via solid-state transformation of primary igneous K-feldspar during an impact event that achieved pressures of ~20 GPa or more. The mineral name is in honor of Robert C. Liebermann, a high-pressure mineral physicist at Stony Brook University, New York, USA.     

Fine‐grained material associated with a large sulfide returned from Comet 81P/Wild 2

In a consortium analysis of a large particle captured from the coma of comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust spacecraft, we report the discovery of a field of fine‐grained material (FGM) in contact with a large sulfide particle. The FGM was partially located in an embayment in the sulfide. As a consequence, some of the FGM appears to have been protected from damage during hypervelocity capture in aerogel. Some of the FGM particles are indistinguishable in their characteristics from common components of chondritic‐porous interplanetary dust particles, including glass with embedded metals and sulfides and equilibrated aggregates. The sulfide exhibits surprising Ni‐rich lamellae, which may indicate that this particle experienced a long‐duration heating event after its formation but before incorporation into Wild 2.