Assessing flood disaster impacts in agriculture under climate change in the river basins of Southeast Asia

Natural Hazards - This study focused on flood damage assessment for future floods under the impact of climate change. Four river basins of Southeast Asia were selected for the study. They included...     

Factors regulating the distribution of elements in marine sediments predicted by a simulation model

The contents of oxyanionic elements (V, Se and Mo) and cationic transition metals (Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu and Zn) in sediments from near-shore to deep-sea environments were measured to clarify factors regulating the distribution of these elements in marine sediments. For cationic transition metals of which contents increase from near-shore to deep-sea environments, the chemical composition of pelagic clays is modeled by a mixture of aluminosilicates having the chemical composition of average shale and Fe–Mn oxides having the chemical composition of associated manganese nodules. The content of V is fairly constant in sediments from near-shore to deep-sea areas. The mixture model of average shale and manganese nodules holds also for V, although most of the V is located in the aluminosilicate lattices. The content of Se in the near-shore sediments is higher and that in the deep-sea sediments is lower than that in average shale. The high content in the near-shore sediments is interpreted as the addition of biogenic materials to aluminosilicates with average shale composition and the low content in deep-sea sediments is explained by oxidative release of Se from aluminosilicates. The content of Mo in sediments increases from near-shore to deep-sea environments. The general distribution of Mo in marine sediments is expressed by the mixture model. An anomalously high content of Mo in a near-shore sediment is attributed to adsorption of molybdate on manganese oxides.     

Current structure and volume transport of the Soya Warm Current in summer

ADCP, CTD and XBT observations were conducted to investigate the current structure and temperature, salinity and density distributions in the Soya Warm Current (SWC) in August, 1998 and July, 2000. The ADCP observations clearly revealed the SWC along the Hokkaido coast, with a width of 30–35 km and an axis of maximum speed of 1.0 to 1.3 ms⁻¹, located at 20–25 km from the coast. The current speed gradually increased from the coast to a maximum and steeply decreased in the offshore direction. The SWC consisted of both barotropic and baroclinic components, and the existence of the baroclinic component was confirmed by both the density front near the current axis and vertical shear of the alongshore current. The baroclinic component strengthened the barotropic component in the upper layer near the axis of the SWC. The volume transport of the SWC was 1.2–1.3 SV in August, 1998 and about 1.5 SV and July, 2000, respectively. Of the total transport, 13 to 15% was taken up by the baroclinic component. A weak southeastward current was found off the SWC. It had barotropic characteristics, and is surmised to be a part of the East Sakhalin Current.     

Caledonide development offshore–onshore Svalbard based on ocean bottom seismometer, conventional seismic, and potential field data

The western Barents Sea and the Svalbard archipelago share a common history of Caledonian basement formation and subsequent sedimentary deposition. Rock formations from the period are accessible to field study on Svalbard, but studies of the near offshore areas rely on seismic data and shallowdrilling. Offshore mapping is reliable down to the Permian sequence, but multichannel reflection seismic data do not give a coherent picture of older stratigraphy. A survey of 10 Ocean Bottom Seismometer profiles was collected around Svalbard in 1998. Results show a highly variable thickness of pre-Permian sedimentary strata, and a heterogeneous crystalline crust tied to candidates for continental sutures or major thrust zones. The data shown in this paper establish that the observed gravity in some parts of the platform can be directly related to velocity variations in the crystalline crust, but not necessarily to basement or Moho depth. The results from three new models are incorporated with a previously published profile, to produce depth-to-basement and -Moho maps south of Svalbard. There is a 14 km deep basement located approximately below the gently structured Upper Paleozoic Sørkapp Basin, bordered by a 7 km deep basement high to the west, and 7–9 km depths to the north. Continental Moho-depth range from 28 to 35 km, the thickest crust is found near the island of Hopen, and in a NNW trending narrow crustal root located between 19°E and 20°E, the latter is interpreted as a relic of westward dipping Caledonian continental collision or major thrusting. There is also a basement high on this trend. Across this zone, there is an eastward increase in the V_P, V_P/V_S ratio, and density, indicating a change towards a more mafic average crustal composition. The northward basement/Moho trend projects onto the Billefjorden Fault Zone (BFZ) on Spitsbergen. The eastern side of the BFZ correlates closely with coincident linear positive gravity and magnetic anomalies on western Ny Friesland, apparently originating from an antiform with high-grade metamorphic Caledonian terrane. A double linear magnetic anomaly appears on the BFZ trend south of Spitsbergen, sub-parallel to and located 10–50 km west of the crustal root. Based on this correlation, it is proposed that the suture or major thrust zone seen south of Svalbard correlates to the BFZ. The preservation of the relationship between the crustal suture, the crustal root, and upper mantle reflectivity, challenges the large-offset, post-collision sinistral transcurrent movement on the BFZ and other trends proposed in the literature. In particular, neither the wide-angle seismic data, nor conventional deep seismic reflection data south of Svalbard show clear signs of major lateral offsets, as seen in similar data around the British Isles.     

Phase and group velocities and Q of mantle Love and Rayleigh waves of the first two modes and their azimuthal dependences for the 1963 Kurile Islands earthquake

Phase and group velocities and Q of mantle Love and Rayleigh waves from the 1963 Kurile Islands earthquake (M_w = 8.5) were determined over 37 great circle paths by a time variable filtering technique, in a period range 100–500 s for the fundamental modes and 100–275 s for the first higher modes. The preliminary reference Earth model (PREM) explains reasonably well the average dispersion results for the fundamental Love and Rayleigh waves. There exists a small, but significant inconsistency between the observation and the model for the first higher Love and Rayleigh waves. The Q structure of PREM is inconsistent with the observation for the fundamental Love waves, but explains other observations reasonably well. The dispersion of each mode shows a clear azimuthal dependence from which the four azimuthal windows were established. The phase and group velocity measurements for each window were, in general, shown to be mutually consistent. The azimuthal variations are largest for the first higher Rayleigh waves, indicating strong lateral heterogeneity in the structure of the low velocity zone. The first of the four windows is characterized by the largest fraction of Precambrian shields and the second window by the largest fraction of normal oceans. A comparison of these two windows may give some insight into deep lateral heterogeneity between continents and oceans. The observed phase and group velocities of the first window are systematically higher than those of the second window for the fundamental Love and Rayleigh waves at periods up to 400 s, and for the first higher Love and Rayleigh waves up to 175 s. Their differences are greatest for the first higher Rayleigh waves and least for the fundamental Rayleigh waves. Although the fundamental Rayleigh waves show the least velocity differences, their persistence up to a period of longer than 300 s is in striking contrast with some of the pure path phase velocities derived earlier for continents and oceans. A set of models for continents and oceans. PEM-C and PEM-O are not consistent with our observation. The third azimuthal window is characterized by trench-marginal seas and the fourth window by mountainous areas, typically the Asian high plateaus from northern China to the Middle East through Tibet. A comparison of these two windows gives some information about deep structural differences between subduction zones and continental collision zones, both belonging to plate convergence zones. For the fundamental and the first higher Love waves, the phase and group velocities for the third window are markedly low, whereas those for the fourth window are somewhat comparable to those for the second window. Slow Rayleigh waves are evident for two windows, with the fourth window apparently being the slowest for the fundamental Rayleigh above 200 s and for the first higher Rayleigh. For the fundamental Rayleigh waves, the third window is very slow below 200 s, but becomes progressively fast as the period increases and tends to be the fastest window around 400 s, suggesting a deep seated high velocity anomaly beneath trench-marginal seas. The dispersion characteristics of the fourth window indicate a thick high velocity lid with an extensive low velocity zone beneath it. The shield-like lithosphere, coupled with an extensive low velocity zone, may be a characteristic feature of continental collision zones. The particle motion of the fundamental Love waves was found not to be purely transverse to a great-circle connecting the epicenter to a station. The departure from the purely transverse motion is systematic among different periods, different G arrivals (G₂, G₃,…) and different stations, which may be interpreted as being due to lateral refraction.     

Formation of sand banks due to tidal vortices around straits

Sand banks around straits are used as a commercial fishing ground. In order to clarify the mechanism of sand bank formation, the Lagrangian method was used to measure currents and turbidity around the banks in the Neko Seto Sea in the Seto Inland Sea of Japan. A neutrally buoyant float released in the Neko Seto Strait at the maximum tidal flow stage was engulfed in a pair of tidal vortices and moved around one of the sand banks. The vertical distribution of turbidity, which was measured by the vessel moving with the neutral float, showed an extremely high turbidity in the bottom layer of this bank area. According to the analysis of these observational data, the process of sand bank formation around straits is as follows. The tidal vortex transports water mass with suspended materials (including sand) which are whirled up at the bottom by the tidal jet. In the decaying stage of the vortex, the materials in the bottom layer are gathered in the central part of the vortex by the secondary convergent flow in the vortex. Among these materials, a large-size sand particle with a high critical erosion velocity accumulates at the bottom and forms banks. The distribution of bottom sediment and the thickness of alluvium support this result.     

Excess bottom222Rn profiles and their implications in the northwestern Pacific Ocean

Vertical profiles of excess bottom²²²Rn and potential temperature were measured at 23 stations in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. The Rn profiles were classified into the following three types: quasi-exponential (type E), benthic boundary layer (type B), and horizontally disturbed (type H). The ratio among types E, B and H was approximately 2 : 3 : 1.An apparent vertical eddy diffusivity (K) was calculated by applying a one-dimensional diffusion model to the Rn profiles of types E and B. Type E had K values ranging from 15 to 180 cm² s^?1 (average: 70 cm² s^?1). As to type B, K values for the benthic boundary layer (4.5–260 cm² s^?1, average: 120 cm² s^?1) were always more than an order of magnitude larger than those for the upper layer (0.2–35 cm² s^?1, average: 7 cm² s^?1), indicating more active vertical mixing in the benthic boundary layer than in the upper layer.Rn profiles were measured in regions where the bottom topography is known. It was verified that the occurrence of type H related closely with local bottom topographic features accompanied by lateral transient supply of Rn-rich or Rn-poor water.A couple of Rn profiles at the same location, measured at time intervals of several years, were compared with each other for three locations. The general characteristics of Rn profiles were shown to remain unaltered with time, while the fine structure of Rn profiles may have short-term variations caused by local bottom topography and fluctuations of bottom current as indicated in type H.