Normal fault growth influenced by basement fabrics: The importance of preferential nucleation from pre‐existing structures

Reactivation of pre‐existing intra‐basement structures can influence the evolution of rift basins, yet the detailed kinematic relationship between these structures and overlying rift‐related faults remains poorly understood. Understanding the kinematic as well as geometric relationship between intra‐basement structures and rift‐related fault networks is important, with the extension direction in many rifted provinces typically thought to lie normal to fault strike. We here investigate this problem using a borehole‐constrained, 3D seismic reflection dataset from the Taranaki Basin, offshore New Zealand. Excellent imaging of intra‐basement structures and a relatively weakly deformed, stratigraphically simple sedimentary cover allow us to: (a) identify a range of interaction styles between intra‐basement structures and overlying, Plio‐Pleistocene rift‐related normal faults; and (b) examine the cover fault kinematics associated with each interaction style. Some of the normal faults parallel and are physically connected to intra‐basement reflections, which are interpreted as mylonitic reverse faults formed during Mesozoic subduction and basement terrane accretion. These geometric relationships indicate pre‐existing intra‐basement structures locally controlled the position and attitude of Plio‐Pleistocene rift‐related normal faults. However, through detailed 3D kinematic analysis of selected normal faults, we show that: (a) normal faults only nucleated above intra‐basement structures that experienced late Miocene compressional reactivation, (b) despite playing an important role during subsequent rifting, intra‐basement structures have not been significantly extensionally reactivated, and (c) preferential nucleation and propagation of normal faults within late Miocene reverse faults and folds appears to be the key genetic relationship between contractionally reactivated intra‐basement structures and rift‐related normal faults. Our analysis shows that km‐scale, intra‐basement structures can control the nucleation and development of newly formed, rift‐related normal faults, most likely due to a local perturbation of the regional stress field. Because of this, simply inverting fault strike for causal extension direction may be incorrect, especially in provinces where pre‐existing, intra‐basement structures occur. We also show that a detailed kinematic analysis is key to deciphering the temporal as well as simply the spatial or geometric relationship between structures developed at multiple structural levels.     

Environmental factors influencing aggregation of manta rays (Manta birostris) off the northeastern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula

Manta rays inhabit tropical, subtropical and temperate waters. Aggregation sites of manta rays have been recognized worldwide, but the reasons for this behavior are still poorly understood. This study describes environmental factors influencing aggregation sites of the giant manta ray (Manta birostris) off the northeastern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula. Observations of manta rays were obtained from scientific surveys conducted during 2006–2011. Environmental data were obtained from satellite imagery. The maximum entropy (Maxent) method for habitat modeling was used to determine the effects of environmental conditions on the species and predict suitable habitat for manta rays in this region. Primary productivity and distance to the coast were the most influential variables, suggesting that aggregation occurs in highly productive coastal waters. The distribution of manta rays predicted by the Maxent model showed that the most suitable habitat within the study area is located off the northeastern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, more precisely, northeast of Isla Holbox and northwest of Isla Contoy. Seasonal patterns of distribution suggest that the most suitable conditions are present from July through September.     

A comparison of growth patterns between non‐indigenous Halophila nipponica and the native sympatric Zostera marina on the southern coast of the Korean peninsula

The growth dynamics of two co‐occurring seagrass species, Zostera marina and Halophila nipponica, were examined on the southern coast of the Korean peninsula. Zostera marina is a native dominant seagrass species in Korean coastal waters, whereas H. nipponica is a non‐native tropical and subtropical species that has extended its distributional range to the temperate coastal areas of Korea. To examine the differences in the growth dynamics of H. nipponica and Z.  marina, their morphology, density, productivity and biomass, as well as local environmental conditions, were monitored monthly from January 2008 to July 2009. Underwater irradiance at the study site was the highest in April 2009 and the lowest in January 2008. Water temperature ranged from 10.4°C in January 2009 to 24.8°C in September 2008. Significant differences in growth dynamics were observed between the species, due to the effect of water temperature at the study site. Density and areal productivity were the highest in April 2008 and June 2008, respectively, for Z.  marina but the highest in July 2008 for H. nipponica. Leaf size, shoot height and shoot weight were the highest in July 2008 for Z.  marina but the highest in August 2008 or September 2008 for H. nipponica. The productivity of both species was strongly correlated with water temperature at the study site. However, the productivity of these species was not strongly correlated with underwater irradiance or the nutrient availability of either the water column or sediment pore water. Zostera marina exhibited the ecological characteristics of a temperate seagrass, whereas H. nipponica retained the features of a subtropical/tropical seagrass, even after adapting to the temperate coastal waters of Korea.     

Small hypervelocity particles captured in aerogel collectors: Location,extraction, handling and storage

Abstract— It has now been about a decade since the first demonstrations that hypervelocity particles could be captured, partially intact, in aerogel collectors. But the initial promise of a bonanza of partially‐intact extraterrestrial particles, collected in space, has yet to materialize. One of the difficulties that investigators have encountered is that the location, extraction, handling and analysis of very small (10 μm and less) grains, which constitute the vast majority of the captured particles, is challenging and burdensome. Furthermore, current extraction techniques tend to be destructive over large areas of the collectors. Here we describe our efforts to alleviate some of these difficulties. We have learned how to rapidly and efficiently locate captured particles in aerogel collectors, using an automated microscopic scanning system originally developed for experimental nuclear astrophysics. We have learned how to precisely excavate small access tunnels and trenches using an automated micromanipulator and glass microneedles as tools. These excavations are only destructive to the collector in a very small area—this feature may be particularly important for excavations in the precious Stardust collectors. Using actuatable silicon microtweezers, we have learned how to extract and store “naked” particles—essentially free of aerogel—as small as 3 μm in size. We have also developed a technique for extracting particles, along with their terminal tracks, still embedded in small cubical aerogel blocks. We have developed a novel method for storing very small particles in etched nuclear tracks. We have applied these techniques to the extraction and storage of grains captured in aerogel collectors (Particle Impact Experiment, Orbital Debris Collector Experiment, Comet‐99) in low Earth orbit.     

Nonlinear earthquake analysis of high arch dam–water–foundation rock systems

A nonlinear finite element model for earthquake response analysis of arch dam–water–foundation rock systems is proposed in this paper. The model includes dynamic dam–water and dam–foundation rock interactions, the opening of contraction joints, the radiation damping of semi‐unbounded foundation rock, the compressibility of impounded water, and the upstream energy propagating along the semi‐unbounded reservoir. Meanwhile, a new equivalent force scheme is suggested to achieve free‐field input in the model. The effects of the earthquake input mechanism, joint opening, water compressibility, and radiation damping on the earthquake response of the Ertan arch dam (240 m high) in China are investigated using the proposed model. The results show that these factors significantly affect the earthquake response of the Ertan arch dam. Such factors should therefore be considered in the earthquake response analysis and earthquake safety evaluation of high arch dams. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Glacial flood pulse effects on benthic fauna in equatorial high‐Andean streams

Equatorial glacier‐fed streams present unique hydraulic patterns when compared to glacier‐fed observed in temperate regions as the main variability in discharge occurs on a daily basis. To assess how benthic fauna respond to these specific hydraulic conditions, we investigated the relationships between flow regime, hydraulic conditions (boundary Reynolds number, Re*), and macroinvertebrate communities (taxon richness and abundance) in a tropical glacier‐fed stream located in the high Ecuadorian Andes (> 4000 m). Both physical and biotic variables were measured under four discharge conditions (base‐flow and glacial flood pulses of various intensities), at 30 random points, in two sites whose hydraulic conditions were representative to those found in other streams of the study catchment. While daily glacial flood pulses significantly increased hydraulic stress in the benthic habitats (appearance of Re* > 2000), low stress areas still persisted even during extreme flood events (Re* < 500). In contrast to previous research in temperate glacier‐fed streams, taxon richness and abundance were not significantly affected by changes in hydraulic conditions induced by daily glacial flood pulses. However, we found that a few rare taxa, in particular rare ones, preferentially occurred in highly stressed hydraulic habitats. Monte‐Carlo simulations of benthic communities under glacial flood reduction scenarios predicted that taxon richness would be significantly reduced by the loss of high hydraulic stress habitats following glacier shrinking. This pioneer study on the relationship between hydraulic conditions and benthic diversity in an equatorial glacial stream evidenced unknown effects of climate change on singular yet endangered aquatic systems. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Carbon isotope fractionation between graphite and diamond during shock experiments

Abstract— Carbon isotopic compositions were measured for shock‐produced diamond and shocked graphite formed at peak pressures ranging from 37 to 52 GPa. The δ¹³C values of diamonds produced in a sealed container were generally lower than that of the initial graphite. The differences in the carbon isotopic composition between initial graphite and shocked graphite/diamond may reflect kinetic isotopic fractionation during the oxidation of the graphite/diamond and/or analytical artifacts possibly induced by impurities in the samples. The pressure effect on the isotopic fractionations between graphite and diamond can be estimated from the δ¹³C values of impurity‐free diamonds produced using a vented container from which gases, including oxygen, in pore spaces escaped during or after the diamond formation (e.g., 0.039 ± 0.085‰ at a peak pressure of 52 GPa). Any isotopic fractionation induced by shock conversion of graphite to diamond is too small to be detected in natural shock‐induced diamond‐graphite systems related to terrestrial impact cratering processes.     

Vertical amplitude reduction of Rayleigh waves by a row of piles in a poroelastic half‐space

A row of rigid piles is addressed as the countermeasures for isolating Rayleigh waves in a poroelastic half‐space. The complex characteristic equations for Rayleigh waves are derived via Biot's theory and their existence conditions are given. The piles are modeled as Euler–Bernoulli beams with longitudinal displacements and the diffracted field by each pile is constructed only with Rayleigh waves. Six infinite linear systems of algebraic equations are obtained in terms of the equilibrium of forces and continuity of displacements at the pile–soil interfaces. The systems are subsequently solved in the complex least‐squares sense. The influence of certain pile and soil characteristics such as the permeability of poroelastic soil, spacing between the piles and length of the piles on the isolating performance of a pile barrier is investigated. Computed results show that the permeability of poroelastic soil displays a significant effect on the vertical amplitude reduction of Rayleigh waves. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Varved sediments of Lake Yoa (Ounianga Kebir,Chad) reveal progressive drying of the Sahara during the last 6100 years

The sedimentological and geochemical properties of a 7·47 m long laminated sequence from hypersaline Lake Yoa in northern Chad have been investigated, representing a unique, continuous 6100 year long continental record of climate and environmental change in the eastern Central Sahara. These data were used to reconstruct the Mid to Late Holocene history of this currently hyper‐arid region, in order to address the question of whether the Mid Holocene environmental transition from a humid to a dry Sahara was progressive or abrupt. This study involved a suite of analyses, including petrographic and scanning electron microscope examination of thin sections, X‐ray diffraction, X‐radiography, granulometry, loss on ignition and magnetic susceptibility. The potential of micro‐X‐ray fluorescence core scanning was tested at very high resolution. Detailed microscopic investigation revealed the sedimentary processes responsible for the formation of the fine laminations, identified the season during which they were formed, and confirmed their annually rhythmic nature. High‐resolution X‐ray fluorescence core scanning allowed the distinction of each individual lamination over the entire record, opening new perspectives for the study of finely laminated sediment sequences. Geochemical and mineralogical data reveal that, due to decreasing monsoon rainfall combined with continuous and strong evaporation, the hydrologically open and fresh Mid Holocene Lake Yoa slowly evolved into the present‐day hypersaline brine depleted in calcium, which has existed for about the past 1050 years. During the oldest part of the investigated period, Lake Yoa probably contained a permanently stratified lower water column that was nevertheless disrupted relatively frequently by mixing events. Deep‐water anoxia became more stable because of increased salinity‐driven density stratification. In parallel, the sediment grain‐size proxies record a progressive increase of aeolian input in the course of the last 6100 years. Altogether, all geochemical and sedimentological indicators point to a progressive drying of the eastern Central Sahara, strengthening previous conclusions based on palaeoecological indicators.     

Including spatial distribution in a data‐driven rainfall‐runoff model to improve reservoir inflow forecasting in Taiwan

Multi‐step ahead inflow forecasting has a critical role to play in reservoir operation and management in Taiwan during typhoons as statutory legislation requires a minimum of 3‐h warning to be issued before any reservoir releases are made. However, the complex spatial and temporal heterogeneity of typhoon rainfall, coupled with a remote and mountainous physiographic context, makes the development of real‐time rainfall‐runoff models that can accurately predict reservoir inflow several hours ahead of time challenging. Consequently, there is an urgent, operational requirement for models that can enhance reservoir inflow prediction at forecast horizons of more than 3 h. In this paper, we develop a novel semi‐distributed, data‐driven, rainfall‐runoff model for the Shihmen catchment, north Taiwan. A suite of Adaptive Network‐based Fuzzy Inference System solutions is created using various combinations of autoregressive, spatially lumped radar and point‐based rain gauge predictors. Different levels of spatially aggregated radar‐derived rainfall data are used to generate 4, 8 and 12 sub‐catchment input drivers. In general, the semi‐distributed radar rainfall models outperform their less complex counterparts in predictions of reservoir inflow at lead times greater than 3 h. Performance is found to be optimal when spatial aggregation is restricted to four sub‐catchments, with up to 30% improvements in the performance over lumped and point‐based models being evident at 5‐h lead times. The potential benefits of applying semi‐distributed, data‐driven models in reservoir inflow modelling specifically, and hydrological modelling more generally, are thus demonstrated. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.