Field Measurements of Plant Emissivity Spectra: An Experimental Study on Remote Sensing of Vegetation in the Thermal Infrared Region

Spectral features of plant species in the visible to SWIR (0.4–2.5 μm) region have been studied extensively, but scanty attention has been given to plant thermal infrared (TIR: 4–14 μm) properties. This paper presents preliminary results of a study that was conducted first time in India to measure radiance and emissivity properties of eight plant species in TIR spectral region in the field conditions using a FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) field spectroradiometer working in 4–14 μm at an agriculture experimental farm. Several spectral features in the emissivity spectra of plant species were observed that are probably related to the leaf chemical constituents, such as cellulose and xylan (hemicellulose) and structural aspects of leaf surface like abundance of trichomes and texture. Observations and results from the field measurements were supported by the laboratory measurements like biochemical analysis. These preliminary field emissivity measurements of leaves in TIR show that there is useful spectral information that may be detectable by field-based instrument. More detailed field and laboratory measurements are underway to explore this research theme.     

Testing satellite and ground thermal imaging of low-temperature fumarolic fields: The dormant Nisyros Volcano (Greece)

The Nisyros Volcano (Greece) was monitored by satellite and ground thermal imaging during the period 2000–2002. Three night-scheduled Landsat-7 ETM⁺ thermal (band 6) images of Nisyros Island were processed to obtain land surface temperature. Ground temperature data were also collected during one of the satellite overpasses. Processed results involving orthorectification and 3-D atmospheric correction clearly show the existence of a thermal anomaly inside the Nisyros Caldera. This anomaly is associated mainly with the largest hydrothermal craters and has land surface temperatures 5–10 °C warmer than its surroundings. The ground temperature generally increased by about 4 °C inside the main crater over the period 2000–2002. Ground thermal images of the hydrothermal Stephanos Crater were also collected in 2002 using a portable thermal infrared camera. These images were calibrated to ground temperature data and orthorectified. A difference of about 0–2 °C was observed between the ground thermal images and the ground temperature data. The overall study demonstrates that satellite remote sensing of low-temperature fumarolic fields within calderas can provide a reliable long-term monitoring tool of dormant volcanoes that have the potential to reactivate. Similarly, a portable thermo-imager can easily be deployed for real-time monitoring using telemetric data transfer. The operational costs for both systems are relatively low for an early warning system.     

Measuring tree stem diameters using intensity profiles from ground-based scanning lidar from a fixed viewpoint

This paper presents a method for using the intensity of returns from a scanning light detection and ranging (lidar) system from a single viewing point to identify the location and measure the diameter of tree stems within a forest. Such instruments are being used for rapid forest inventory and to provide consistent supporting information for airborne lidars. The intensity transect across a tree stem is found to be consistent with a simple model parameterised by the range and diameter of the trunk. The stem diameter is calculated by fitting the model to transect data. The angular span of the stem can also be estimated by using a simple threshold where intensity values are tested against the expected intensity for a stem of given diameter. This is useful when data are insufficient to fit the model or the stem is partially obscured. The process of identifying tree positions and trunk diameters is fully automated and is shown to be successful in identifying a high proportion of trees, including some that are partially obscured from view. The range and bearing to trees are in excellent agreement with field data. Trunk angular span and diameter estimations are well correlated with field measurements at the plot scale. The accuracy of diameter estimation is found to decrease with range from the scanning position and is also reduced for stems subtending small angles (less than twice the scanning resolution) to the instrument. A method for adjusting survey results to compensate for trees missed due to obscuration from the scanning point and the use of angle count methods is found to improve basal area estimates and achieve agreement within 4% of field measurements.     

Reviewers of the Journal of Geodesy for Volume 79

Acknowledgement for Referees

Reviewers of the Journal of Geodesy for Volume 79     

Effect of signal contamination in matched-filter detection of the signal on a cluttered background

To derive a matched filter for detecting a weak target signal in a hyperspectral image, an estimate of the band-to-band covariance of the target-free background scene is required. We investigate the effects of including some of the target signal in the background scene. Although the covariance is contaminated by the presence of a target signal (there is increased variance in the direction of the target signature), we find that the matched filter is not necessarily affected. In fact, if the variation in plume strength is strictly uncorrelated with the variation in background spectra, the matched filter and its signal-to-clutter ratio (SCR) performance will not be impaired. While there is little a priori reason to expect significant correlation between the plume and the background, there usually is some residual correlation, and this correlation leads to a suppressing effect that limits the SCR obtainable even for strong plumes. These effects are described and quantified analytically, and the crucial role of this correlation is illustrated with some numerical examples using simulated plumes superimposed on real hyperspectral imagery. In one example, we observe an order-of-magnitude loss in SCR for a matched filter based on the contaminated covariance.     

Application of S-SEBI model for crop evapotranspiration using Landsat-8 data over parts of North India

Estimation and monitoring of crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) or consumptive water use over large-area holds the key to irrigation management plans and regional drought preparedness. The objective of this study was to estimate ET_c by applying the simplified-surface energy balance index (S-SEBI) model to Landsat-8 data for the 2014–2015 period in parts of North India. An average ET_c was estimated 2.72 and 2.47 in mm day^?1 with 0.22, 0.18 standard deviation and 0.11, 0.07 standard error for Kharif and Rabi crops, respectively. On validation part, a close relationship was observed between S-SEBI derived and scintillometer observed evaporative fraction with 0.85 correlation coefficient and 0.86 agreement index. The statistical analysis also endorses the results accuracy and reliability with 0.026 and 0.602, relative root-mean square errors and model efficiency for wheat crop, respectively. The study showed that normalized difference vegetation index and LST are closely related and serve as a proxy for qualitative representation of ET_c.     

Geomasking sensitive health data and privacy protection: an evaluation using an E911 database

Geomasking is used to provide privacy protection for individual address information while maintaining spatial resolution for mapping purposes. Donut geomasking and other random perturbation geomasking algorithms rely on the assumption of a homogeneously distributed population to calculate displacement distances, leading to possible under-protection of individuals when this condition is not met. Using household data from 2007, we evaluated the performance of donut geomasking in Orange County, North Carolina. We calculated the estimated k-anonymity for every household based on the assumption of uniform household distribution. We then determined the actual k-anonymity by revealing household locations contained in the county E911 database. Census block groups in mixed-use areas with high population distribution heterogeneity were the most likely to have privacy protection below selected criteria. For heterogeneous populations, we suggest tripling the minimum displacement area in the donut to protect privacy with a less than 1% error rate.     

Variability analysis of groundwater levels — AGIS-based case study

The present study has analyzed the variability in depth to water level below ground level (bgl) vis-à-vis groundwater development and rainfall from 1987 to 2007 in agriculture dominated Kaithal district of Haryana state in India. Spatial distribution of groundwater depth was mapped and classified into different zones using ILWIS 3.6 GIS tools. Change detection maps were prepared for 1987–1997 and 1997–2007. Groundwater depletion rates during successive decades were compared and critical areas with substantial fall in groundwater levels were identified. Further, block wise trends of change in groundwater levels were also analyzed. The water table in fresh belt areas of the district (Gulha, Pundri and Kaithal blocks) was observed to decline by a magnitude ranging from 10 m to 23 m. In Kalayat and Rajaund blocks, the levels were found fluctuating in a relatively narrow range of 4–9 m. During 1997–2007, the depletion has been faster compared to the preceding decade. Excessive groundwater depletion in major part of the district may be attributed to indiscriminate abstraction for irrigation and decrease in rainfall experienced since 1998. Changes in cropping pattern and irrigation methods are needed in the study area for sustainable management of the resource.     

Interaction between a circular opening and fractures originating from its boundary in a piecewise homogeneous plane

The complex variables boundary element method (CVBEM) is used to study interaction between a circular opening and fractures originating from its boundary in a piecewise homogeneous plane. A new complex hypersingular equation for piecewise homogeneous media with a circular opening is obtained. The equation is solved using the CVBEM technique with circular and straight boundary elements and polynomial approximations (with square root asymptotics for crack tip elements) for the unknown functions. The algorithm is verified through comparison with known semi‐analytical and numerical solutions that involve interaction between a circular opening and specific systems of cracks or other openings. New numerical results concerning the interaction of the circular opening with the cracks and circular inclusions are presented. The method is applied to an important problem in the petroleum industry: modelling propagation of hydraulic fractures in the vicinity of a borehole. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.