Observations of the structure and evolution of solar flares with a soft X-ray telescope

132 soft X-ray flare events have been observed with The Aerospace Corporation/Marshall Space Flight Center S-056 X-ray telescope that was part of the ATM complement of instruments aboard Skylab. Analyses of these data are reported in this paper. The observations are summarized and a detailed discussion of the X-ray flare structures is presented. The data indicated that soft X-rays emitted by a flare come primarily from an intense well-defined core surrounded by a region of fainter, more diffuse emission. Loop structures are found to constitute a fundamental characteristic of flare cores and arcades of loops are found to play a more important role in the flare phenomena than previously thought. Size distributions of these core features are presented and a classification scheme describing the brightest flare X-ray features is proposed. The data show no correlations between the size of core features and: (1) the peak X-ray intensity, as indicated by detectors on the SOLRAD satellite; (2) the rise time of the X-ray flare event, or (3) the presence of a nonthermal X-ray component. An analysis of flare evolution indicates evidence for preliminary heating and energy release prior to the main phase of the flare. Core features are found to be remarkably stable and retain their shape throughout a flare. Most changes in the overall configuration seem to be the result of the appearance, disappearance or change in brightness of individual features, rather than the restructuring or re-orientation of these features. Brief comparisons with several theories are presented.     

The cooling of flare produced plasmas in the solar corona

Solar flare X-rays, at energies less than 10 keV, are emitted by hot plasmas located in the corona. Three plasma cooling models are examined in detail. The cooling of the electrons by Coulomb collisions with ions at a lower temperature would require the observed material to occupy very large volumes. Cooling could take place by conduction or by radiation and observations are proposed which would allow the dominant cooling mechanism to be established.On leave during a portion of this work as University Research Fellow in Astronomy, University of Leicester, England.     

Understanding the surface hydrology of the Lake Eyre Basin: Part 1—Rainfall

This is the first of two papers that describe the surface hydrology of the Lake Eyre Basin (LEB) (1,140,000 km²) in central Australia and compares some key characteristics with those observed from arid regions globally. This paper concentrates on annual rainfall, whereas the second paper is devoted to streamflow. The first part describes the LEB's climate (arid to semi-arid), which is dominated by a subtropical high pressure ridge stretching latitudinally across central Australia. Then follow major analyses that include the characteristics of rainfall, wet and dry spell lengths and cumulative surpluses and deficiencies, rainfall trends and intra- and inter-decadal fluctuations, and the relationship between rainfall and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The paper concludes with six conclusions, the key ones being: the variability of the annual rainfall (based on the coefficient of variation) in the LEB is approximately 60% greater than that found for stations located in arid regions in the rest of the world; there is a bias towards longer lengths of dry years than observed in the rest of Australia; and, there is a significant lag correlation between rainfall and ENSO, particularly in the east and in the latter part of a year.     

The effect of cracks on the thermal expansion of rocks

Thermal expansion during the first heating cycle at atmospheric pressure was measured in several directions in seven igneous rocks between 25° and 400°C at slow heating rates. The coefficient of thermal expansion measured under these conditions increases more rapidly as temperature is increased than the average thermal expansion coefficient of the constituent minerals. The “extra” expansion is attributed to the formation of cracks by differential expansion of mineral grains. The presence of such cracks in the rocks during the cooling part of the cycle and during any subsequent heating and cooling cycles will result in a substantial decrease in the coefficient of thermal expansion as compared to that measured during the first heating cycles. The effect of cracks initially present in a rock was studied by measuring the full tensor of the coefficient of thermal expansion on two rocks with anisotropic crack distributions. In these two rocks the coefficient of thermal expansion is least in the direction perpendicular to the plane of greatest crack concentration. The implication of our data is that thermal expansion depends greatly on the fracture state of the rock. Both the fractures in the rock and the boundary conditions on the rock are significant for the interpretation of thermal expansion measurements and for their application to other problems.     

Assessment of regional air pollution distribution by point cumulative semivariogram method at Erzurum urban center, TURKEY

In the assessment of air quality, regional distribution and dispersion with distance are important, together with the variations of pollutants in time. On this occasion, the point cumulative semi-variogram (PCSV) method is used in order to find simply regional distribution of pollutants of Erzurum urban centre. This method is based simply on the summation of square differences in air pollutant concentrations between different sites. Monthly regional variation maps of Erzurum are constructed by finding radius of influence (for SO₂, from 1000 m to 3500 m and, for TSP, 1000–2000 m) and PCSV scattering diagram data at different levels by using monthly average sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and total suspended particulate (TSP) matter concentrations in 2001–2002 winter season. Consequently, the air pollution distribution of Erzurum is assessed.     

Neue Beobachtungen zur Deutung der knolligen Magnesite im Tonschieferkomplex des alpinen Buntsandsteins der Nördlichen Kalkalpen

Magnesitknollen in den roten Tonschiefern des alpinen Buntsandsteins (Werfener Schiefer) wurden in fast allen der bearbeiteten Profile zwischen Innsbruck und Saalfelden angetroffen. Es handelt sich um drei Typen von Magnesitknollen, die in ihrer Genese voneinander abweichen: 1. Kryptokristalline Konkretionen frühdiagenetischer Ausfällung; 2. Syntektonische Rekristallisationsgefüge von knolligem Habitus, die in ihrer Entstehung zeitlich mit der Durchbewegung der sandig-tonigen Nebengesteine zusammenfallen; 3. Postdeformative Spatmagnesite, welche innerhalb des schiefrigen Starrgefüges als Konkretionen auskristallisierten und die Wegsamkeit der Schieferung als bevorzugte Wachstumsrichtung benützten.

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Nodular magnesite has been found in most sections of Lower Triassic red beds (Werfener Schiefer) of the Northern Calcareous Alps between Innsbruck and Saalfelden, Austria. Three genetic types of magnesite can be differentiated: 1. Cryptocrystalline concretions of early diagenetic origin; 2. Syntectonic recrystallisation fabrics of nodular habit which formed while the sandshale matrix underwent deformation; 3. Post-tectonic spar-magnesite concretions which grew preferentially along tectonic cleavage surfaces.