Weathering and anthropogenic influences on the water and sediment chemistry of Wular Lake,Kashmir Himalaya

This paper presents a study on the Wular Lake which is the largest fresh water tectonic lake of Kashmir Valley, India. One hundred and ninety-six (196) water samples and hundred (100) sediment samples (n = 296) have been collected to assess the weathering and Anthropogenic impact on water and sediment chemistry of the lake. The results showed a significant seasonal variability in average concentration of major ions being highest in summer and spring and lower in winter and autumn seasons. The study revealed that lake water is alkaline in nature characterised by medium total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity. The concentration of the major ion towards the lake central showed a decreasing trend from the shore line. The order of major cations and anions was Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ > Na⁺ > K⁺ and HCO₃ ^? > SO₄ ^2? > Cl^?, respectively. The geochemical processes suggested that the chemical composition lake water is mostly influenced by the lithology of the basin (carbonates, silicates and sulphates) which had played a significant role in modifying the hydrogeochemical facies in the form of Ca–HCO₃, Mg–HCO₃ and hybrid type. Chemical index of alteration values of Wular Lake sediments reflect moderate weathering of the catchment area. Compared to upper continental crust and the post-Archean Shale, the sediments have higher Si, Ti, Mg and Ca contents and lower Al, Fe, Na, K, P, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cu content. Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and US Environmental Protection Agency sediment quality standards indicated that there is no pollution effect of heavy metals (Zn, Mn, Pb, Ni and Co).The study also suggested that Wular Lake is characterised by both natural and anthropogenic influences.     

Shigar valley gemstones,their chemical composition and origin,Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan,Pakistan

A variety of gemstones is being mined in the Shigar valley, Skardu, Pakistan. These include beryl (goshenite and aquamarine), tourmaline (schorl), garnet (almandine–spessartine), apatite, topaz, fluorite, zoisite, clinozoisite, and axinite, mostly occurring in complex or zoned pegmatites and metamorphic rocks. These have been analyzed using electron probe micro-analyzer and X-ray diffractometer. The mineral chemistry of each gemstone is similar to its respective typical gemstone variety with homogenous chemical composition. Field and chemical characteristics suggest that beryl, tourmaline, garnet, apatite, topaz, and fluorite are occurring in zoned pegmatites which are largely formed by magmatic hydrothermal fluids in the cavities and vugs within the intermediate zone. However, zoisite, clinozoisite, and axinite may have a metamorphic and/or metasomatic origin.     

Interactive effect of nitrogen fertilizer and hydrocarbon pollution on soil biological indicators

The investigation of the impact of different forms of nitrogen fertilizer (NO₃-N and NH₄-N) on microbial parameters, enzyme activities and phytotoxicity in a petroleum-contaminated soil was evaluated by an incubation study. The tested enzymes, microbial activity and seed germination index showed different patterns in response to both petroleum and nitrogen fertilizer addition and time of incubation. The results apparently showed that the contamination of soil with petroleum has a negative effect on soil ecosystem. Nitrogen fertilizer could improve inhibition of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil. Nevertheless, nitrogen fertilizer had no significant effect on urease activity in the petroleum-contaminated soil. As compared to NO₃-N, the addition of NH₄-N to the soil resulted in a greater impact on soil performance as attested by the recovery of the soil germination capability and higher values of the respiration. The application of nitrogen fertilizer may be suggested as a good strategy for restoring soils in regions affected by the same problem.     

Geomorphic analysis reveals active tectonic deformation on the eastern flank of the Pir Panjal Range,Kashmir Valley,India

There are plenty of faults that show evidence that they are active. Most of the valley’s floor is occupied by unconsolidated Karewa deposits, in particular on the south–southwest of the Kashmir Valley. In such situations, geomorphic data can reveal the location of active faults. Accordingly, we tried to identify geomorphic indices in SW of the Kashmir Valley (Veshav, Rambiara, and Romushi drainage basins), which revealed the area to be potentially tectonically active. This active faulting was further substantiated by drainage anomalies and field investigations, which provides evidence for an emergent out-of-sequence NE-dipping active reverse fault (identified first time on ground) named the Balapur Fault (BF). The BF can be traced over at least 40 km along the southwest side of the Kashmir Valley. The existence of the active Balapur Fault and of two other inferred faults north of the Panjal Thrust or Murree Thrust presents a picture of a more complex strain-partitioning regime in the Kashmir Himalayas than is usually visualized.     

Remote Sensing based assessment of glacial lake growth on Milam glacier,Goriganga basin,Kumaon Himalaya

The climate change of the twentieth century had an evident effect on glacier environments of the Himalaya. Temporal images of Indian Remote Sensing satellites provide an opportunity to monitor the recession of glacier and development of glacial lakes in the Himalayan cryosphere with a cost to time benefit ratio. The recession of Milam glacier and subsequent growth of a proglacial lake near the snout was analysed using Resourcesat-1 and Resourcesat-2 data. The recession of 480 m during 2004 to 2011 and growth of 47 epiglacial ponds over Milam glacier shows the glacier is in a state of imbalance and losing the ice by downwasting.     

Hydrogeochemical assessment of groundwater in Kashmir Valley,India

Groundwater samples (n = 163) were collected across Kashmir Valley in 2010 to assess the hydrogeochemistry of the groundwater in shallow and deep aquifers and its suitability for domestic, agriculture, horticulture, and livestock purposes. The groundwater is generally alkaline in nature. The electrical conductivity (EC) which is an index to represent the total concentration of soluble salts in water was used to measure the salinity hazard to crops as it reflects the TDS in groundwater ranging from 97 to 1385 μS/cm, except one well in Sopore. The average concentration of major ions was higher in shallow aquifers than in deeper aquifers. In general, Ca²⁺ is the dominant cation and HCO \(_{3}^{-}\) the dominant anion. Ca–HCO₃, Mg–HCO₃, Ca–Mg–HCO₃, Na–HCO₃ were the dominant hydrogeochemical facies. High concentration of HCO₃ and pH less than 8.8 clearly indicated that intense chemical weathering processes have taken place in the study area. The groundwater flow pattern in the area follows the local surface topography which not only modifies the hydrogeochemical facies but also controls their distribution. The groundwater in valley flows into four directions, i.e., SW–NE, NE–W, SE-NW and SE–NE directions. The results suggest that carbonate dissolution is the dominant source of major ions followed by silicate weathering and ion-exchange processes. The concentrations of all the major ions determined in the present study are within the permissible limits of WHO and BIS standards. The results of Total Hardness, SAR, Na%, Kelly Index, USDA classification, Magnesium absorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, and PI suggested that groundwater is good for drinking, livestock, and irrigation purposes.     

Note on the isotopic geochemistry of fossil-lacustrine tufas in carbonate plateau—A study from Dungul region (SW Egypt)

Lithological, chemical, and stable isotope data are used to characterize lacustrine tufas dating back to pre-late Miocene and later unknown times, capping different surfaces of a Tertiary carbonate (Sinn el-Kedab) plateau in Dungul region in the currently hyperarid south-western Egypt. These deposits are composed mostly of calcium carbonate, some magnesium carbonate and clastic particles plus minor amounts of organic matter. They have a wide range of (Mg/Ca)_molar ratios, from 0.03 to 0.3. The bulk-tufa carbonate has characteristic isotope compositions: (δ¹³C_mean = −2.49 ± 0.99‰; δ¹⁸O_mean = −9.43 ± 1.40‰). The δ¹³C values are consistent with a small input from C4 vegetation or thinner soils in the recharge area of the tufa-depositing systems. The δ¹⁸O values are typical of fresh water carbonates. Covariation between δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values probably is a reflection of climatic conditions such as aridity. The tufas studied are isotopically similar to the underlying diagenetic marine chalks, marls and limestones (δ¹³C_mean = −2.06 ± 0.84‰; δ¹⁸O_mean = −10.06 ± 1.39‰). The similarity has been attributed to common meteoric water signatures. This raises large uncertainties in using tufas (Mg/Ca)_molar, δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O records as proxies of paleoclimatic change and suggests that intrinsic compositional differences in material sources within the plateau may mask climatic changes in the records.     

Prediction of Land Cover Change Using Markov and Cellular Automata Models: Case of Al-Ain,UAE, 1992-2030

The UAE has witnessed rapid urban development and economic growth in recent years. With its ambitious vision to become one of the advanced nations by 2021, planners and policy-makers need to know the most likely direction of future urban development. In this study, remotely sensed imagery coupled with cellular automata models were used to predict land cover in Al Ain, the second largest city in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. Markov and cellular automata models were used for 1992 and 2006 to predict land cover in 2012. Land Use and Land Cover maps for the study area were derived from 1992, 2006, and 2012 Landsat satellite images (TM, ETM⁺). The models achieved an overall accuracy of approximately 80 %. A Markov model was applied for 2006 and 2012 to predict land cover in 2030. The results conformed to the general trend of the Al Ain Master Plan 2030. This study demonstrates that remote sensing, with the availability of free Landsat data, is a viable technology that could be used to help in the prediction process especially in developing countries, where data availability is a problem.     

Markov CA,Multi Regression,and Multiple Decision Making for Modeling Historical Changes in Kirkuk City,Iraq

The cellular automata (CA) model is an important tool in land use change studies. Swift increases in population and long-term expectations of rapid urbanization have led to extensive land use change, and normal living conditions have affected the natural resources of the land. This paper highlights and analyzes the historical urban changes in Kirkuk City, Iraq, considering repeated changes undergone by the state such change as government infrastructures, wars, and economic blockade. In this paper, an integrated model, built-in multi regression model, and multi-criteria evaluation were considered to improve the representation of CA transition rules. Environmental and socioeconomic factors were used to produce Suitable Maps (SMs). These SMs were practicalities to create factor layers and weight usage, rating method process for variance expert decision-making groups, and geographic information systems for the periods 1984, 1990, 2000, and 2010. The roots of the equation (R²) values are compared and these values are chosen to produce a good model of suitable maps. The approach used in this study provides a mechanism for monitoring suitability maps in Kirkuk. Furthermore, the model Markov CA is implemented and evaluated. The results indicate that the model, its related concepts performs sufficiency     

Gravitational clustering of galaxies in an expanding universe

We inquire the phenomena of clustering of galaxies in an expanding universe from a theoretical point of view on the basis of thermodynamics and correlation functions. The partial differential equation is developed both for the point mass and extended mass structures of a two-point correlation function by using thermodynamic equations in combination with the equation of state taking gravitational interaction between particles into consideration. The unique solution physically satisfies a set of boundary conditions for correlated systems and provides a new insight into the gravitational clustering problem.