Constraints on dissipation in the deep interiors of Ganymede and Europa from tidal phase-lags

Jupiter’s satellites are subject to strong tidal forces which result in variations of the gravitational potential and deformations of the satellites’ surfaces on the diurnal tidal cycle. Such variations are described by the Love numbers \(k_2\) and \(h_2\) for the tide-induced potential variation due to internal mass redistribution and the radial surface displacement, respectively. The phase-lags \( \phi _{k_2}\) and \( \phi _{h_2}\) of these complex numbers contain information about the rheological and dissipative states of the satellites. Starting from interior structure models and assuming a Maxwell rheology to compute the tidal deformation, we calculate the phase-lags in application to Ganymede and Europa. For both satellites we assume a decoupling of the outer ice-shell from the deep interior by a liquid subsurface water ocean. We show that, in this case, the phase-lag difference \(\varDelta \phi = \phi _{k_2}- \phi _{h_2}\) can provide information on the rheological and thermal state of the deep interiors if the viscosities of the deeper layers are small. In case of Ganymede, phase-lag differences can reach values of a few degrees for high-pressure ice viscosities \({<}10^{14}\) Pa s and would indicate a highly dissipative state of the deep interior. In this case \(\varDelta \phi \) is dominated by dissipation in the high-pressure ice layer rather than dissipation within the ice-I shell. These phase lags would be detectable from spacecraft in orbit around the satellite. For Europa \(\varDelta \phi \) could reach values exceeding \(20^\circ \) and phase-lag measurements could help distinguish between (1) a hot dissipative silicate mantle which would in thermal equilibrium correspond to a very thin outer ice-I shell and (2) a cold deep interior implying that dissipation would mainly occur in a thick (several tens of km) outer ice-I shell. These measurements are highly relevant for ESA’s Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) and NASA’s Europa Multiple Flyby Mission, both targeted for the Jupiter system.     

Coupled penetrometer, MBES and ADCP assessments of tidal variations in surface sediment layer characteristics along active subaqueous dunes, Danish Wadden Sea

In-situ geotechnical measurements of surface sediments were carried out along large subaqueous dunes in the Knudedyb tidal inlet channel in the Danish Wadden Sea using a small free-falling penetrometer. Vertical profiles showed a typical stratification pattern with a resolution of ∼1 cm depicting a thin surface layer of low sediment strength and a stiffer substratum below (quasi-static bearing capacity equivalent: 1–3 kPa in the top layer, 20–140 kPa in the underlying sediment; thickness of the top layer ca. 5–8 cm). Observed variations in the thickness and strength of the surface layer during a tidal cycle were compared to mean current velocities (measured using an acoustic Doppler current profiler, ADCP), high-resolution bathymetry (based on multibeam echo sounding, MBES) and qualitative estimates of suspended sediment distributions in the water column (estimated from ADCP backscatter intensity). The results revealed an ebb dominance in sediment remobilization, and a general accretion of the bed towards low water. A loose top layer occurred throughout the tidal cycle, likely influenced by bedload transport and small events of suspended sediment resettlement (thickness: 6 ± 2 cm). Furthermore, this layer showed a significant increase in thickness (e.g. from 8 cm to 16 cm) related to periods of overall deposition. These findings imply that dynamic penetrometers can conveniently serve to (1) quantify potentially mobile sediments by determining the thickness of a loose sediment surface layer, (2) unravel sediment strength development in potentially mobile sediments and (3) identify sediment accumulation. Such data are an important complement and add a new geotechnical perspective during investigations of sediment remobilization processes in highly dynamic coastal environments.     

From consumer to enterprise grade: How the choice of four UAS impacts point cloud quality

Uncrewed aerial systems (UAS), combined with structure-from-motion photogrammetry, has already proven to be very powerful for a wide range of geoscience applications and different types of UAS are used for scientific and commercial purposes. However, the impact of the UAS used on the accuracy of the point clouds derived is not fully understood, especially for the quantitative analysis of geomorphic changes in complex terrain. Therefore, in this study, we aim to quantify the magnitude of systematic and random error in digital elevation models derived from four commonly used UAS (XR6/Sony α6000, Inspire 2/X4s, Phantom 4 Pro+, Mavic Pro) following different flight patterns. The vertical error of each elevation model is evaluated through comparison with 156 GNSS reference points and the normal distribution and spatial correlation of errors are analysed. Differences in mean errors (−0.4 to −1.8 cm) for the XR6, Inspire 2 and Phantom 4 Pro are significant but not relevant for most geomorphological applications. The Mavic Pro shows lower accuracies with mean errors up to 4.3 cm, thus showing a higher influence of random errors. QQ plots revealed a deviation of errors from a normal distribution in almost all data. All UAS data except Mavic Pro exhibit a pure nugget semivariogram, suggesting spatially uncorrelated errors. Compared to the other UAS, the Mavic Pro data show trends (i.e. differences increase with distance across the survey—doming) and the range of semivariances is 10 times greater. The lower accuracy of Mavic Pro can be attributed to the lower GSD at the same flight altitude and most likely, the rolling shutter sensor has an effect on the accuracy of the camera calibration. Overall, our study shows that accuracies depend highly on the chosen data sampling strategy and that the survey design used here is not suitable for calibrating all types of UAS camera equally.     

Optimum design height of cofferdams

The cost of Cofferdams as a function of design height is described by a basic lot size model. The cost components include construction and flooding risk cost, the former increases while the latter decreases with design height. Using an exponential function for the expected number of floods, together with Poisson assumptions, an expression is derived for the probability of no flooding. From this expression a reliability chart is constructed that can be used to estimate the flooding risk for a given design height and period. By minimizing the cost objective function, a design chart is also presented giving optimum design height in terms of parameters such as: estimated daily flooding cost, construction cost per unit height, average flood duration, mean and variance of the hydrological data. Sensitivity of the solution to errors in estimating model parameters is discussed.