Magma mixing and convective compositional layering within the Vesuvius magma chamber

The pumice-fall deposits of the last two Plinian eruptions of Vesuvius-a.d. 79 Pompei and 3700 b.p. Avellino-show a marked vertical compositional variation from white phonolite at the base to grey tephritic phonolite at the top. In both Avellino and Pompei sequences a compositional gap separates white from grey pumice. Grey and white pumice have distinct Sr and Nd isotopic compositions (grey pumice: ⁸⁷Sr/³⁶Sr=0.70749-56, ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd=0.512507 for Pompei; 0.70760-69, 0.512504 for Avellino; white pumice: 0.70757-78 for Pompei; 0.70729-42 for Avellino). K-feldspar separated from both grey and white pumice has, in all cases, a white ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio (0.70766-79 for Pompei, 0.70728-33 for Avellino). The observed variations are interpreted as reflecting a pre-eruptive zonation of the magma chamber. Although mineralogical evidence of interaction between magma and calcareous country rocks exists in both eruptions, crustal contamination has not significantly modified the isotopic signatures of the erupted products. Petrographic and isotopic evidence of syneruptive magma mingling occur in Pompei grey pumice as well as in Avellino white and grey pumice, but they do not fully explain all the observed geochemical and isotopic variations. These variations are related to the complex refilling history of the magmatic system and result by fractional crystallization and mixing processes acting within the magma chamber. Preliminary data from other Plinian and subplinian sruptions of the Somma-Vesuvius point out the repeticive behaviour of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr variation in the last 25 000 years, hence suggesting a single magma chamber and continuity of the feeding system.     

New constraints on the HIMU mantle from neon and helium isotopic compositions of basalts from the Cook–Austral Islands

High ⁴He/³He ratios of 100 000 to 160 000 found at HIMU ocean islands (“high μ,” where μ is the U/Pb ratio) are usually attributed to the presence of recycled oceanic crust in the HIMU mantle source. However, significantly higher ⁴He/³He ratios are expected in recycled crust after residence in the mantle for periods greater than 1 Ga. In order to better understand the helium isotopic signatures in HIMU basalts, we have measured helium and neon isotopic compositions in a suite of geochemically well-characterized basalts from the Cook–Austral Islands. We observe ⁴He/³He ratios ranging from 56 000 to 141 000, suggesting the involvement of mantle reservoirs both more and less radiogenic than the mantle source for mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORBs). In addition, we find that the neon isotopic compositions of HIMU lavas extend from the MORB range to compositions less nucleogenic than MORBs. The Cook-Austral HIMU He–Ne isotopic compositions, along with Sr, Nd, Pb, and Os isotopic compositions, indicate that in addition to recycled crust, a relatively undegassed mantle end-member (e.g., FOZO) is involved in the genesis of these basalts. The association of relatively undegassed mantle material with recycled crust provides an explanation for the close geographical association between HIMU lavas and EM (enriched mantle)-type lavas from this island chain: EM-type signatures represent a higher mixing proportion of relatively undegassed mantle material. Mixing between recycled material and relatively undegassed mantle material may be a natural result of entrainment processes and convective stirring in deep mantle.     

Time dependence of negative buoyancy and the subduction of continental lithosphere

The time evolution of negative buoyancy of a subducting slab is modelled from the beginning of subduction under various kinematic conditions (dip angle and subduction velocity). The calculations take into account the thermal and density effects of the variations of the thermophysical parameters with temperature and pressure, and of phase transitions. The magnitude of the negative buoyancy increases during subduction of oceanic lithosphere, up to values in the (2–4) × 10¹³ N m⁻¹ range when the tip of the slab reaches a depth of 600–700 km. If continental material arrives at the trench and is subducted, the downward buoyancy decreases by an amount proportional to the volume of the subducted continental crust. Assuming that subduction stops when the buoyancy becomes zero, and that delamination of the continental crust or slab breakoff do not occur, the maximum downdip length of the subductable continental crust is estimated as a function of the dip angle, subduction velocity and geometry of the margin. In most cases, subduction of continental material down to depths of 100–250 km is possible, and continental subduction can continue for times up to 10–15 Ma if the velocity is low. These estimates are not significantly affected by the hypothetical occurrence of a metastable olivine wedge within the slab, and could be lower bounds if the lower continental crust is mafic and transforms to eclogite.     

A thermo-plastic constitutive law for brittle-plastic behavior of rocks at high temperatures

Mechanical properties of rocks change under the influence of, temperature. Stress at the onset of yielding, ultimate strength, dilatancy, strain hardening and softening, and the confining pressure at brittle-ductile transition are all reduced by the increasing temperature. This study presents a framework of constitutive modeling of thermo-brittle-plastic behavior of rocks which encompasses these changes. The constitutive law is based on a thermo-plasticity theory first proposed for metals byPrager (1958). Two phenomenological mechanisms have been identified as central for the modeling: temperature dependence of the yield locus (thermal softening), and temperature dependence of the strain-hardening function (thermally enhanced ductility). Material parameters for two rocks, Carrara marble and Westerly granite, were determined on the basis of additional hypotheses. These parameters are used in numerical simulations of triaxial tests at different temperatures. The obtained stress-strain curves compare well to the experimental results. The changes with temperature in the stress at the onset of yielding are more accurately reproduced that the evolution of hardening or softening. Suggestions for possible improvements and future research directions are indicated.     

Impact of lightning on organic matter-rich soils: influence of soil grain size and organic matter content on underground fires

A detailed study was carried out on a piece of land that had been struck by lightning during the violent rainstorm that raged over the Island of S?o Miguel (Azores Archipelago) in late October 2006. Temperature and gas measurements (CO₂, CO, H₂S and CH₄) were performed in four study trenches, dug in an area of ∼3 m², where an underground fire had been initiated by the impact with a lightning stroke, followed by the emission of a column of gases and smoke. The soil under study was originally a well-pedogenized about 80 cm thick bed, made of volcanic clayey to silty tephra fallouts and contained 5.5–9.7% of organic matter. The underground fire was monitored for one week and revealed a peak release of 404 ppm CO and 3.4% CO₂ originating from a horizon located about 45 cm under the soil surface. Measurements of temperature, performed one week after the impact, indicated a maximum value of 326°C inside the soil, while 516.5°C were measured on the surface of a lava block interred about 20 cm under the surface. Subsequently, a stratigraphic and sedimentologic study proved the role of the grain-size of the soil and of the organic matter content of the different horizons of the impact area, in determining the ratio between anoxic/oxidised combustion conditions and in the progress of the process itself. It was also noticed that combustion was not total all over in the soil bed and that the process had slightly migrated toward SW during the observation period. The combustion process went on for about ten days, in spite of several other violent rainstorms, until it was artificially extinguished through the excavations made to obtain study trenches. This particular circumstance evidenced the potential natural hazard represented by this kind of atmospheric event, especially in a land where the volcanic nature of the soil may easily mislead inexperienced observers and, consequently, delay proper action.     

Seismic vulnerability assessment of a mixed masonry–RC building aggregate by linear and nonlinear analyses

From the beginning of the twentieth century, and due to the rapid increase of reinforced concrete (RC) usage, mixed masonry–RC buildings have emerged. In Lisbon, Portugal, old mixed masonry–RC buildings appeared between 1920 and 1960, representing the transition period between masonry and proper RC. These buildings are often integrated in blocks, and frequently share the side-walls, implying, thus, the need to assess the seismic vulnerability of building aggregates. The present paper approaches the seismic vulnerability assessment of a specific type of old mixed masonry–RC buildings in Lisbon. The study comprises the analysis of a building, both as an isolated structure and inserted in its aggregate, using two approaches: (1) linear dynamic analysis with SAP2000 and (2) nonlinear static analysis by means of 3Muri/Tremuri software. A comparison of both approaches derives a good matching between the obtained results. However, a nonlinear analysis is required to identify, in an adequate manner, the critical areas of the structure requiring strengthening.     

Controlled-Source Electromagnetic Approaches for Hydrocarbon Exploration and Monitoring on Land

Electromagnetic methods that utilize controlled sources have been applied for natural resource exploration for more than a century. Nevertheless, concomitant with the recent adoption of marine controlled-source electromagnetics (CSEM) by the hydrocarbon industry, the overall usefulness of CSEM methods on land has been questioned within the industry. Truly, there are few published examples of land CSEM surveys carried out completely analogously to the current marine CSEM standard approach of towing a bipole source across an array of stationary receivers, continuously transmitting a low-frequency signal and interpreting the data in the frequency domain. Rather, different sensitivity properties of different exploration targets in diverse geological settings, gradual advances in theoretical understanding, acquisition and computer technology, and different schools in different parts of the world have resulted in a sometimes confusing multitude of land-based controlled-source EM surveying approaches. Here, I aim to review previous and present-day approaches, and provide reasoning for their diversity. I focus on surface-based techniques while excluding airborne EM and well logging and on applications for hydrocarbon exploration. Attempts at the very demanding task of using onshore controlled-source EM for reservoir monitoring are shown, and the possible future potential of EM monitoring is discussed.     

Tidal response to sea level rise and bathymetric changes in the German Wadden Sea

Ocean Dynamics - Tidally dominated coasts are directly affected not only by projected rise in mean sea level, but also by changes in tidal dynamics due to sea level rise and bathymetric changes. By...     

Plant Cover,Herbivory, and Resiliency in a Cape Cod Salt Marsh: Multi-year Responses and Recovery Following Manipulation of Nutrients and Competition

To assess responses and recovery of salt marsh grass species, we manipulated external nutrient supply and removed shoots of Spartina alterniflora or Spartina patens from fertilized and control plots in a Massachusetts marsh. The pulse-and-recovery experiment included treatments for 5 years, and recovery for an additional 7 years. Responses of these potential competitors sensitively depended on local contingencies of elevation and nutrient dose, and, moreover, the differences in outcomes were emphasized at longer time scales. Local contingencies became manifest as differences in responsiveness and resiliency of the different grass species, with differing time courses and longer-term outcomes as to what species were present. These features might explain the diverse results obtained in shorter-term salt marsh experiments, and provide a view of the complex suite of species-specific and external environmental variables that may control competitive interactions in general.     

Occurrence of the Indian genus Hemibos (Bovini, Bovidae, Mammalia) at the Early–Middle Pleistocene transition in Italy

The morphology of the horn-core structure and section shape of the Bos galerianus type specimen, as well as the general anatomy of the frontal and occipital areas of the skull, suggest that the skull is better attributed to the Indian genus Hemibos. This finding contributes to our understanding of faunal dispersal patterns into Europe at the Early–Middle Pleistocene transition.