Upward flux of RaB and RaC in the planetary boundary layer as controlled by atmospheric microstructure

Summary Vertical mixing and transport processes are studied, and their variation as influenced by atmospheric fine-structure conditions investigated, using data gathered from simultaneous measurements of RaB and RaC concentration in the ambient air at three mountain stations located close to each other horizontally, but at markedly differing levels (730, 1780 and 2960 m). RaB was used as a tracer on account of the high sensitivity to variations of vertical-mixing activity evidenced by RaB abundance figures. Strong inversions between 700 and 2500 m a.s.l. create a zero condition at the higher level, where only 0.1% of the low-level RaB reading obtains; active turbulent mixing, on the other hand, leads to nearly equal RaB readings at the two levels. The vertical gradient of concentration of RaB is used to compute mean vertical-mass-exchange coefficients; the latter are studied in their relation to atmospheric structure characteristics. Statistical studies indicate that the barring effect of inversions is related solely to the magnitude of the inverse temperature gradient. Problems of radioactive equilibrium RaB-RaC are discussed, and the significance of aerosol particle size taken into consideration.

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Zusammenfassung Simultane Messungen der RaB- und RaC-Konzentration der Luft an 3 Bergstationen von geringem horizontalem Abstand aber mit relativ grossen Höhenunterschieden (Stationsniveau rund: 700, 1800 und 3000 m a.s.l.) werden benutzt um die vertikalen Mischungs-und Transportvorgänge und ihre Abhängigkeit von der atmosphärischen Feinstruktur zu studieren. Die RaB-Konzentration der Luft reagiert nämlich sehr empfindlich auf Schwankungen der Austauschintensität. Im Falle einer kräftigen Inversion zwischen 700 und 2500 m a.s.l. fällt die RaB-Konzentration über dieses Höhenintervall hinweg auf 0,1% des Basiswertes ab, bei turbulentem Austausch herrscht fast Konzentrationsgleichheit. Aus den vertikalen RaB-Konzentrationsgradienten werden mittlere vertikale Austauschkoeffizienten berechnet und diese zur atmosphärischen Struktur in Beziehung gesetzt. Es zeigte sich dabei, dass die Sperrwirkung einer Inversion nur durch die Steilheit der Temperaturänderung im Inversionsbereich bedingt ist. Probleme des radioaktiven Gleichgewichts zwischen RaB und RaC werden diskutiert. Auch die Bedeutung der Aerosolpartikelgrösse wird mit in Betracht gezogen.

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Paper presented at the XIVth General Assembly of the IUGG, meeting of the ICACR, Luzern, October 1967. The work has been sponsored by European Research Office, US Army, and Department of Defence of FRG     

On the computation of area probabilities based on a spatial stochastic model for precipitation cells and precipitation amounts

A main task of weather services is the issuing of warnings for potentially harmful weather events. Automated warning guidances can be derived, e.g., from statistical post-processing of numerical weather prediction using meteorological observations. These statistical methods commonly estimate the probability of an event (e.g. precipitation) occurring at a fixed location (a point probability). However, there are no operationally applicable techniques for estimating the probability of precipitation occurring anywhere in a geographical region (an area probability). We present an approach to the estimation of area probabilities for the occurrence of precipitation exceeding given thresholds. This approach is based on a spatial stochastic model for precipitation cells and precipitation amounts. The basic modeling component is a non-stationary germ-grain model with circular grains for the representation of precipitation cells. Then, we assign a randomly scaled response function to each precipitation cell and sum these functions up to obtain precipitation amounts. We derive formulas for expectations and variances of point precipitation amounts and use these formulas to compute further model characteristics based on available sequences of point probabilities. Area probabilities for arbitrary areas and thresholds can be estimated by repeated Monte Carlo simulation of the fitted precipitation model. Finally, we verify the proposed model by comparing the generated area probabilities with independent rain gauge adjusted radar data. The novelty of the presented approach is that, for the first time, a widely applicable estimation of area probabilities is possible, which is based solely on predicted point probabilities (i.e., neither precipitation observations nor further input of the forecaster are necessary). Therefore, this method can be applied for operational weather predictions.     

Soil–structure interaction in the time domain using halfspace Green's functions

A time-domain formulation is proposed for the transient response analysis of general, three-dimensional structures resting on a homogeneous, elastic halfspace subjected to either external loads or seismic motions. The formulation consists of two parts: (a) the time domain formulation of the soil behaviour and (b) the coupling of the corresponding soil algorithms to the Finite Element Code ANSYS. As far as the structure is concerned, this coupling opens the way for the analysis of non-linear soil–structure interaction. The approach is based on halfspace Green's functions for displacements elicited by Heaviside time-dependent surface point loads. Hence, the spatial discretisation can be confined to the contact area between the foundation and the soil, i.e. no auxiliary grid beyond the foundation as for conventional boundary element formulations is required. The method is applied to analyse the dynamic response of a railway track due to a moving wheel set by demonstrating the influence of ‘through-the-soil coupling’.     

Veränderungen im Stoff- und Mineralbestand während mehrphasiger Mylonitisierung der Kellerjoch-Gneise (Tirol)

Zusammenfassung Die mittelostalpinen Kellerjochgneise (ehemals Normalgranite) wurden einer mehrphasigen Mylonitisierung unterzogen. Die variszische, in weiten Bereichen homogene Mylonitisierung erfaßte den gesamten Granitkomplex unter retrograden Bedingungen der oberen bis unteren Grünschieferfazies und wird von einer statischen Temperung abgeschlossen. Hierbei kam es zur Ausbildung eines variszischen Deckenbaus.Während der alpidischen Deckenschübe werden die älteren Deckengrenzen unter retrograden, inhomogenen Mylonitisierungen der unteren Grünschieferfazies reaktiviert. Dabei reagierten die Kellerjochgneise als eigenständige alpine Decke. Reste variszischer Deckengrenzen haben nur lokale Bedeutung.Die Kellerjochgneise zeigen drei verschiedene Deckengrenzen-Typen, an denen sich der Mineralbestand, das Gefüge sowie der Pauschalchemismus in charakteristischer Weise verändert und unterschiedliche Deformationsbedingungen widerspiegelt.Auffällig sind in Deckengrenzen-Nähe jüngere Quarzblasten mit schlauchartigen Korrosionen. Für deren ausschließlich metamorphe Bildung wird der Begriff der Keimbildungskorrosion vorgeschlagen.

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Summary The middle austroalpine Kellerjochgneiss — formerly a granitic complex — was subjected to a polyphase retrograde shearing. The Variscan, predominantly homogeneous mylonitisation affected the whole granitic complex under retrograde conditions of upper and lower greenschist facies metamorphism and ceased with a static annealing. In this connection a Variscan nappe structure developed.During the alpidic nappe transports older nappe boundaries were reactivated with heterogeneous mylonitisation and under lower greenschist facies conditions. Thereby the Kellerjochgneiss-complex was treated as a separated Alpidic nappe. Relics of the Variscan nappe boundary were locally preserved.The Kellerjochgneiss nappe reveals three different types of nappe boundaries with characteristical alterations of mineral composition and structure. Changes in major element abundances are corresponding with these alterations, reflecting different conditions of deformation.Close to nearly all nappe boundaries, young blastic quartz grains with corrosion tubes attract attention. For their exclusively metamorphic genesis the term nucleation corrosion is proposed.

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Résumé Les gneiss du Kellerjoch des Alpes autroalpines moyennes (autrefois un complexe granitique) ont été soumis à une mylonitisation polyphasée. La mylonitisation varisque homogène sur une grande échelle, a affecté le complexe granitique dans les conditions de métamorphisme régressif du facies schiste vert supérieur à inférieur, et s'est clôturée par une empreinte statique. En même temps se développait une tectonique en nappes. Au cours du déclanchement des nappes, les anciennes limites de nappes ont été réactivées avec mylonitisation hétérogène et régressive du facies schiste vert inférieur. A cette occasion, les gneiss du Kellerjoch se sont comportés comme une nappe indépendante. Les restes des limites entre nappes varisques n'ont plus qu'une importance locale. — Les gneiss du Kellerjoch montrent trois types différents de limite de nappes où la constitution minérale, la texture et la constitution chimique se modifient de façon caractéristique et reflètent des conditions de déformation différentes. — A proximité des limites des nappes, on trouve du quartz blastique plus jeune avec corrosions tubulaires. Pour leur développement métamorphique on propose le terme de « Keimbildungskorrosion ».

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Kellerjoch'a, - , . ; , . . . Kellerjoch'a , . . Kellerjoch'a , , , . , , . Keimbildungskorrosion.

     

Über ein Datolithvorkommen am Basaltkontakt im Kaliwerk Buggingen (Südbaden)

Zusammenfassung Kleine Datolith-Knöllehen wurden unmittelbar auf dem Kontakt von Ankaratrit-Gängen mit dem Unteren Kalilager auf dem Kaliwerk Buggingen aus hydrothermalen Lösungen im Gefolge der Gangbildung und vielleicht im Zusammenhang mit der Serpentinisierung gebildet. Ihre Bildungstemperatur ließ sich aus der volumenkonstanten Umwandlung der Sylvinite in Hallt-Gesteine im Kontaktbereich zu etwa 300° C abschätzen.

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Small spherolites of datolite occur immediately on the contact of the lower potash seam with cross-cutting ankaratrite-dikes in the mine of Buggingen, southern Baden. They are hydrothermal in origin and perhaps connected with the serpentinization of the ankaratrites. Their temperature of formation of about 300° C was estimated from the fact, that the volum of the potash seam remained constant during the metasomatic replacement of sylvite by halite in the neighbourhood of the dikes.

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Herrn Prof. Dr.C. W. Correns zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet.     

Biodegradation of forest floor organic matter bound to minerals via different binding mechanisms

Mineral-associated organic matter (OM) represents a large reservoir of organic carbon (OC) in natural environments. The factors controlling the extent of the mineral-mediated OC stabilization, however, are poorly understood. The protection of OM against biodegradation upon sorption to mineral phases is assumed to result from the formation of strong bonds that limit desorption. To test this, we studied the biodegradation of OM bound to goethite (α-FeOOH), pyrophyllite, and vermiculite via specific mechanisms as estimated from OC uptake in different background electrolytes and operationally defined as ‘ligand exchange’, ‘Ca²⁺ bridging’, and ‘van der Waals forces’. Organic matter extracted from an Oa forest floor horizon under Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) was reacted with minerals at dissolved OC concentrations of ∼5-130 mg/L at pH 4. Goethite retained up to 30.1 mg OC/g predominantly by ‘ligand exchange’; pyrophyllite sorbed maximally 12.5 mg OC/g, largely via ‘van der Waals forces’ and ‘Ca²⁺ bridging’, while sorption of OM to vermiculite was 7.3 mg OC/g, mainly due to the formation of ‘Ca²⁺ bridges’. Aromatic OM components were selectively sorbed by all minerals (goethite ? phyllosilicates). The sorption of OM was strongly hysteretic with the desorption into 0.01 M NaCl being larger for OM held by ‘Ca²⁺ bridges’ and ‘van der Waals forces’ than by ‘ligand exchange’. Incubation experiments under aerobic conditions (initial pH 4; 90 days) revealed that OM mainly bound to minerals by ‘ligand exchange’ was more resistant against mineralization than OM held by non-columbic interactions (‘van der Waals forces’). Calcium bridges enhanced the stability of sorbed OM, especially for vermiculite, but less than the binding via ‘ligand exchange’. Combined evidence suggests that the extent and rate of mineralization of mineral-associated OM are governed by desorption. The intrinsic stability of sorbed OM as related to the presence of resistant, lignin-derived aromatic components appears less decisive for the sorptive stabilization of OM than the involved binding mechanisms. In a given environment, the type of minerals present and the solution chemistry determine the operating binding mechanisms, thereby the extent of OM sorption and desorption, and thus ultimately the bioavailability of mineral-associated OM.     

A quantitative vulnerability function for fluvial sediment transport

In quantitative risk assessment, risk is expressed as a function of hazard, elements at risk exposed, and vulnerability. Vulnerability is defined as the expected degree of loss for an element at risk as a consequence of a certain event, following a natural-scientific approach combined with economic methods of loss appraisal. The resulting value ranges from 0 (no damage) to 1 (complete destruction). With respect to torrent processes, i.e., fluvial sediment transport, this concept of vulnerability—though widely acknowledged—did not result in sound quantitative relationships between process intensities and associated degrees of loss so far, even if considerable loss occurred during recent years. To close this gap and establish this relationship, data from three well-documented torrent events in the Austrian Alps were used to derive a quantitative vulnerability function applicable to residential buildings located on torrent fans. The method applied followed a spatially explicit empirical approach within a GIS environment and was based on process intensities, the spatial characteristics of elements at risk, and average reconstruction values on a local scale. Additionally, loss data were collected from responsible administrative bodies and analysed on an object level. The results suggest a modified Weibull distribution to fit best to the observed damage pattern if intensity is quantified in absolute values, and a modified Frechet distribution if intensity is quantified relatively in relation to the individual building height. Additionally, uncertainties resulting from such an empirical approach were studied; in relation to the data quality a 90% confidence band was found to represent the data range appropriately. The vulnerability relationship obtained allows for an enhanced quantification of torrent risk, but also for an inclusion in comprehensive vulnerability models including physical, social, economic, and institutional vulnerability. As a result, vulnerability to mountain hazards might decrease in the future.