Performance of small-scale irrigation schemes in Lake Tana Basin of Ethiopia: technical and socio-political attributes

This study was conducted to investigate technical and socio-political attributes that lead to the underperformance of two selected irrigation schemes (Shina and Bebeks) in the Lake Tana floodplains, Ethiopia. Irrigation application efficiency (AE) at nine experimental fields showed a wide range, from 20 to 80%, but was mostly between 40 and 60%. Irrigation water-use efficiency (IWUE) varied from 1.9 to 7.2 kg m^?3 for onion and 0.9 to 1.2 kg m^?3 for maize. The lined and earthen canal conveyance losses in Bebeks were 0.037 and 0.047 l s^?1 m^?1, whereas in Shina they were 0.033 and 0.044 l s^?1 m^?1, respectively. The overall consumed ratio (OCR) of water was 0.58 for Bebeks and varied from 0.73 to 1.2 in Shina. Both schemes are performing below the standard based on technical performance indicators. Irrigation water user associations (WUAs) were not implemented, but irrigation committees (ICs), composed of local political leaders, are managing both schemes. Canal and reservoir sedimentation from erosion of upstream catchment areas during the rainy season was the major problem.     

Landscape Controls on Structural Variation in Eucalypt Vegetation Communities: Woronora Plateau,Australia

Quantification of landscape-based vegetation structural variation and pattern is a significant goal for a variety of ecological, monitoring and biodiversity studies. Vegetation structural metrics, derived from airborne laser scanning (ALS or aerial light detection and ranging—LiDAR) and QuickBird satellite imagery, were used to establish the degree of plot-based vegetation variation at a hillslope scale. Topographic position is an indicator of energy and water availability, and was quantified using DEM-based insolation and topographic wetness, respectively, stratifying areas into hot-warm-cold and wet-moist-dry topographic classes. A range of vegetation metrics—maximum and modal canopy height, crown cover, foliage cover, NDVI and semivariance—were compared among randomly selected plots from each topographic class. NDVI increases with increasing landscape wetness, whereas ALS-derived foliage cover decreases with increasing insolation. Foliage cover is well correlated with crown cover (R ² =0.65), and since foliage cover is readily calculable for whole-of-landscape application, it will provide valuable and complementary information to NDVI. Between-plot heterogeneity increases with increasing wetness and decreasing insolation, indicating that more sampling is required in these locations to capture the full range of landscape-based variability. Pattern analysis in landscape ecology is one of the fundamental requirements of landscape ecology, and the methods described here offer statistically significant, quantifiable and repeatable means to realise that goal at a fine spatial grain.     

Chemical signature of intermediate water masses along western Portuguese margin

Although the circulation of intermediate water masses in the eastern North Atlantic remains poorly defined, the presence of fresher intermediate waters, the Sub-Artic (SAIW) and the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW), as well the saline intermediate Mediterranean Water (MW), has been tracked using biogeochemical properties. Here we assess the hydrographic and chemical structures of intermediate waters along the western Portuguese margin by examining the vertical distributions and property-property plots of chemical tracers (oxygen and nutrients). AAIW was traced by low oxygen and high nutrients, while SAIW was recognized by low nutrients. The Mediterranean Water (MW) undercurrent is shown to spread towards the eastern flank of Gorringe bank. Concurrently, the fresher waters gained salt by direct incorporation of MW, while this water was enriched in nutrients on its way northward and westward owing, to a great extent, to the entrainment of an AAIW branch. The distributions of nutrients and apparent oxygen utilization are discussed in terms of regional ocean circulation. Our analysis suggests a circulation pattern of the various intermediate waters along the western Portuguese margin: MW extends all over the area, but its presence is more pronounced around cape St. Vincent; SAIW apparently moves southward, reaching the Gorringe bank region, and AAIW flows northward along the coast and around the bank.     

Experimental determination of carbon isotope fractionation between CaCO3 and graphite

Carbon isotopic exchange between graphite and three polymorphs of CaCO₃ was investigated at temperatures of 600-1400 °C and at pressures from 1.4 to 2.3 GPa. Fractionation factors at all temperatures were determined by the partial exchange treatment of Northrop and Clayton (1966).Graphite starting material for the majority of the experiments was milled in water for 20-25 h, producing aggregates of nanosheets. The sheets range in width from 50 to 1000 nm and in thickness from 20 to 30 nm, and they retain hexagonal symmetry.Isotopic exchange appears to be the sum of surface exchange and interior exchange. At 1100-1400 °C, interior exchange exceeded surface exchange, probably by a combination of grain growth, as determined by increase in crystallite size, recrystallization, as observed in FESEM images, and diffusion. In some runs at 1200 and 1400 °C with an isotopic contrast between the initial graphite and calcite of close to 50‰, equilibrium fractionation was actually overstepped due to a kinetic effect. A weighted regression of fractionation factors from the high-temperature runs yields the line of equilibrium interior exchange:

     

A study of bernalite,Fe(OH)3, using Mössbauer spectroscopy,optical spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy

To study the crystal chemistry of bernalite, Fe(OH)₃, and the nature of the octahedral Fe³⁺ environment, Mössbauer spectra were recorded from 80 to 350 K, optical spectra were recorded at room temperature and a sample was studied using transmission electron microscopy. The Mössbauer spectrum of bernalite consists of a single six-line magnetic spectrum at 80 K. A broadened six-line magnetic spectrum with significantly less intensity is observed at higher temperatures, and is attributed to a small fraction of bernalite occurring as small particles. The variation of hyperfine magnetic field data for bulk bernalite with temperature is well described by the Weiss molecular field model with parameters of H ₀ = 55.7±0.3 T and T _N = 427±5K. The centre shift data were fitted to the Debye model with parameters ₀=0.482±0.005 mm/s (relative to -Fe) and _M=492±30 K. The quadrupole shift is near zero at 300 K, and does not vary significantly with temperature. Absorption spectra in the visible and near infrared range show three crystal field bands of Fe³⁺ at 11 300, 16000 and 23 200 cm^-1, giving a crystal field splitting of 14 570 cm^-1 and Racah parameters of B=629 cm^-1 and C=3381 cm^-1. Infrared reflection spectra show two distinct OH-stretching frequencies, which could correspond to two structurally different types of OH groups. A band was also observed at 2250 cm^-1, suggesting the presence of molecular CO₂ in the large cation site. Analytical transmission electron microscopy indicates that Si occurs within the bernalite structure as well as along domain boundaries. Electron diffraction and imaging show that bernalite is polysynthetically twinned along {100} planes with twin domains ranging from 3 to 20 nm in thickness. Results are discussed with respect to the nature of the octahedral Fe³⁺ site, and compared with values for other iron oxides and hydroxides.     

Exploring Saturation of Themes and Spatial Locations in Qualitative Public Participation Geographic Information Systems Research

Use of public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) studies that collect local knowledge in a spatial format is increasing as a tool in natural resources management. Qualitative PPGIS studies have been conducted as individual interviews, as workshops, and in focus groups. As the number of qualitative PPGIS studies increases, so does the need to understand their quality. Saturation, the point when the researcher determines that the collection of additional data will provide minimal new information as it relates to a particular issue, directly reflects on the validity of the study. While the concept of saturation is well established, it is still inconsistently assessed and reported. Furthermore, how saturation applies to qualitatively collected spatial data has not been addressed. A method is presented to assess spatial saturation of qualitative PPGIS data from 19 focus groups that were conducted to investigate important places for recreation, livelihoods, and the environment in the Florida Panhandle.     

Impact of Earth radiation pressure on GPS position estimates

GPS satellite orbits available from the International GNSS Service (IGS) show a consistent radial bias of up to several cm and a particular pattern in the Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) residuals, which are suggested to be related to radiation pressure mismodeling. In addition, orbit-related frequencies were identified in geodetic time series such as apparent geocenter motion and station displacements derived from GPS tracking data. A potential solution to these discrepancies is the inclusion of Earth radiation pressure (visible and infrared) modeling in the orbit determination process. This is currently not yet considered by all analysis centers contributing to the IGS final orbits. The acceleration, accounting for Earth radiation and satellite models, is introduced in this paper in the computation of a global GPS network (around 200 IGS sites) adopting the analysis strategies from the Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (CODE). Two solutions covering 9 years (2000–2008) with and without Earth radiation pressure were computed and form the basis for this study. In previous studies, it has been shown that Earth radiation pressure has a non-negligible effect on the GPS orbits, mainly in the radial component. In this paper, the effect on the along-track and cross-track components is studied in more detail. Also in this paper, it is shown that Earth radiation pressure leads to a change in the estimates of GPS ground station positions, which is systematic over large regions of the Earth. This observed “deformation” of the Earth is towards North–South and with large scale patterns that repeat six times per GPS draconitic year (350 days), reaching a magnitude of up to 1 mm. The impact of Earth radiation pressure on the geocenter and length of day estimates was also investigated, but the effect is found to be less significant as compared to the orbits and position estimates.