A MODIS-based modeling scheme for the estimation of downward surface shortwave radiation under cloud-free conditions

Atmospheric aerosol optical depth (AOD) plays an important role in radiation modeling and partly determines the accuracy of estimated downward surface shortwave radiation (DSSR). In this study, Iqbal’s model C was used to estimate DSSR under cloud-free conditions over the Koohin and Chitgar sites in Tehran, Iran; the estimated DSSR was based on (1) our proposed hybrid modeling scheme where the AOD is retrieved using the Simplified Aerosol Retrieval Algorithm (SARA), ground-based measurements at the AERONET site in Zanjan and (2) the AOD from the Terra MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor. Several other Terra MODIS land and atmospheric products were also used as input data, including geolocation properties, water vapor, total ozone, surface reflectance, and top-of-atmosphere (TOA) radiance. SARA-based DSSR and MODIS-based DSSR were evaluated with ground-based DSSR measurements at the Koohin and Chitgar sites in 2011 and 2013, respectively; the averaged statistics for SARA-based DSSR [R ² ≈ 0.95, RMSE ≈ 22 W/m² (2.5% mean value), and bias ≈ 3 W/m²] were stronger than those for MODIS-based DSSR [R ² ≈ 0.79, RMSE ≈ 51 W/m² (5.8% mean value), and bias ≈ 34 W/m²]. These results show that the proposed hybrid scheme can be used at regional to global scales under the assumption of future access to spatially distributed AERONET sites. Additionally, the robustness of this modeling scheme was exemplified by estimating the aerosol radiative forcing (ARF) during a dust storm in Southwest Asia. The results were comparable to those of previous studies and showed the strength of our modeling scheme.     

Iron isotope variations in Holocene sediments of the Gotland Deep, Baltic Sea

Holocene sediments from the Gotland Deep basin in the Baltic Sea were investigated for their Fe isotopic composition in order to assess the impact of changes in redox conditions and a transition from freshwater to brackish water on the isotope signature of iron. The sediments display variations in δ⁵⁶Fe (differences in the ⁵⁶Fe/⁵⁴Fe ratio relative to the IRMM-14 standard) from −0.27 ± 0.09‰ to +0.21 ± 0.08‰. Samples deposited in a mainly limnic environment with oxygenated bottom water have a mean δ⁵⁶Fe of +0.08 ± 0.13‰, which is identical to the mean Fe isotopic composition of igneous rocks and oxic marine sediments. In contrast, sediments that formed in brackish water under periodically euxinic conditions display significantly lighter Fe isotope signatures with a mean δ⁵⁶Fe of −0.14 ± 0.19‰. Negative correlations of the δ⁵⁶Fe values with the Fe/Al ratio and S content of the samples suggest that the isotopically light Fe in the periodically euxinic samples is associated with reactive Fe enrichments and sulfides. This is supported by analyses of pyrite separates from this unit that have a mean Fe isotopic composition of −1.06 ± 0.20‰ for δ⁵⁶Fe. The supply of additional Fe with a light Fe isotopic signature can be explained with the shelf to basin Fe shuttle model. According to the Fe shuttle model, oxides and benthic ferrous Fe that is derived from dissimilatory iron reduction from shelves is transported and accumulated in euxinic basins. The data furthermore suggest that the euxinic water has a negative dissolved δ⁵⁶Fe value of about −1.4‰ to −0.9‰. If negative Fe isotopic signatures are characteristic for euxinic sediment formation, widespread euxinia in the past might have shifted the Fe isotopic composition of dissolved Fe in the ocean towards more positive δ⁵⁶Fe values.