The Karoo Basin of South Africa: type basin for the coal-bearing deposits of southern Africa

The coal-bearing sediments and coal seams of the Karoo Basin, Southern Africa are described and discussed. The Karoo Basin is bounded on its southern margin by the Cape Fold Belt, onlaps onto the Kaapvaal Craton in the north and is classified as a foreland basin. Coal seams are present within the Early Permian Vryheid Formation and the Triassic Molteno Formation.The peats of the Vryheid Formation accumulated within swamps in a cool temperate climatic regime. Lower and upper delta plain, back-barrier and fluvial environments were associated with peat formation. Thick, laterally extensive coal seams have preferentially accumulated in fluvial environments. The coals are in general inertinite-rich and high in ash. However, increasing vitrinite and decreasing ash contents within seams occur from west to east across the coalfields. The Triassic Molteno coal seams accumulated with aerially restricted swamps in fluvial environments. These Molteno coals are thin, laterally impersistent, vitrinite-rich and shaly, and formed under a warm temperate climatic regime.Palaeoclimate, depositional systems, differential subsidence and basin tectonics influence to varying degrees, the maceral content, thickness and lateral extent of coal seams. However, the geographic position of peat-forming swamps within a foreland basin, coupled with basin tectonics and differential subsidence are envisaged as the primary controls on coal parameters. The Permian coals are situated in proximal positions on the passive margin of the foreland basin. Here, subsidence was limited which enhanced oxidation of organic matter and hence the formation of inertinitic coals. The coals in this tectonic setting are thick and laterally extensive. The Triassci coals are situated within the tectonically active foreland basin margin. Rapid subsidence and sedimentation rates occurred during peat formation which resulted in the preservation of thin, laterally impersistent, high ash, vitrinite-rich, shaly coals.     

Application of optical techniques to the study of plumes in stratified fluids

Digital techniques for the correction of signal distortions that arise in planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) measurements (by PC-based video digitizing systems) of jets and plumes and the production of flow statistics in both time and space are reviewed. The entire concentration field is repeatedly imaged in s intervals over hundreds of thousands a points in a plane. By the recognition of signal distortion sources and the employment of corrections, a clearer picture of tracer concentrations may be realized.Fluorescence studies are made with a planar sheet of laser light 430 mm tall and 1.5 mm thick. The fluorescence excitation produced from trace concentrations of Rhodamine 6G is used to visualize and measure the propagation of a jet or plume in a density stratified laboratory tank. The emitted light is collected by a CCD camera in a 512 × 480 pixel format over a 940 × 715 mm field of view. The captured images are corrected for transverse laser sheet intensity distribution; laser beam attenuation; refraction; lens vignette; time varying and spatial noise; digitization aspect ratio; camera response. The measurement and methods of correction are discussed in detail. The resulting image data can then be used to collect tracer concentration statistics for jets and plumes. Instantaneous (i.e. over of a second intervals), average, maximum, minimum, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation are given as introductory examples of image statistics realizable for a buoyant jet.     

Time-dependent electromagnetic core-mantle coupling

The magnetic field in the Earth's mantle is computed using a depth-dependent electrical conductivity, of form σ = σ_a(r/a)^?α, and an approximation scheme in which the electromagnetic time constant of the mantle is assumed small compared with the time scales of the secular variation, and in which the induced currents and fields are obtained iteratively. We first associate the toroidal fields in the mantle with motions at the core surface (r = a) which create the observed geomagnetic field by flux rearrangement, and compute the resulting couple, Γ, parallel to the geographical axis. Using only zonal core motions, and values σ_a = 3 × 10³ω^?1m^?1, α = 30 for the conductivity profile, we find that the toroidal induced fields create a couple, Γ_T, that over most of this century has been roughly ten times greater than the poloidal part, Γ_S, of Γ, and has the same sign. The total couple, Γ, has fluctuations of order 10¹⁸ Nm as required for the observed decade fluctuations in the length of the day. Its average is ～ ?1.5 × 10¹⁸ Nm, i.e., it is too large to remain unbalanced. We suppose that an equally important couple in the opposite sense is created by flux leakage from the core, and we estimate the necessary gradient of toroidal field in the core to be of order ?0.5 Gs km^?1 at the core surface. During the course of the data analysis needed for the present work, we found some evidence for a torsional wave in the Earth's core with a period of ～ 60 y.     

Reliability analysis of drilled shaft behavior using finite difference method and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monte Carlo</Emphasis> simulation

Load displacement analysis of drilled shafts can be accomplished by utilizing the “t-z” method, which models soil resistance along the length and tip of the drilled shaft as a series of springs. For non-linear soil springs, the governing differential equation that describes the soil-structure interaction may be discretized into a set of algebraic equations based upon finite difference methods. This system of algebraic equations may be solved to determine the load–displacement behavior of the drilled shaft when subjected to compression or pullout. By combining the finite difference method with Monte Carlo simulation techniques, a probabilistic load–displacement analysis can be conducted. The probabilistic analysis is advantageous compared to standard factor of safety design because uncertainties with the shaft–soil interface and tip properties can be independently quantified. This paper presents a reliability analysis of drilled shaft behavior by combining the finite difference technique for analyzing non-linear load–displacement behavior with Monte Carlo simulation method. As a result we develop probabilistic relationships for drilled shaft design for both total stress (undrained) and effective stress (drained) parameters. The results are presented in the form of factor of safety or resistance factors suitable for serviceability design of drilled shafts.     

Upper-mantle structure of the Baltic Shield below the Swedish National Seismological Network (SNSN) resolved by teleseismic tomography

Upper-mantle structure under the Baltic Shield is studied using non-linear high resolution teleseismic P -phase tomography. Observed relative arrival-time residuals from 52 teleseismic earthquakes recorded by the Swedish National Seismological Network (SNSN) are inverted to delineate the structure of the upper mantle. The network consists of 47 (currently working) three-component broad-band stations located in an area about 450 km wide and 1450 km long. In order to reduce complications due to possible significant three-dimensionality of Earth structure, events chosen for this study lay close to in-line with the long-axis of the array  (±30°)  . Results indicate P -wave velocity perturbations of ±3 per cent down to at least 470 km below the network. The size of the array allows inversion for structures even at greater depths, and lateral variations of velocity at depths of up to 680 km appear to be resolved. Below the central part of the array (60°–64° N), where ray coverage is best, the data reveals a large region of relatively low velocity at depths of over about 300 km. At depths less than about 250–300 km, the models include a number of features, including an apparent slab-like structure dipping gently towards the north.