Uncertainty of forest carbon stock changes – implications to the total uncertainty of GHG inventory of Finland

Uncertainty analysis facilitates identification of the most important categories affecting greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory uncertainty and helps in prioritisation of the efforts needed for development of the inventory. This paper presents an uncertainty analysis of GHG emissions of all Kyoto sectors and gases for Finland consolidated with estimates of emissions/removals from LULUCF categories. In Finland, net GHG emissions in 2003 were around 69 Tg (±15 Tg) CO₂ equivalents. The uncertainties in forest carbon sink estimates in 2003 were larger than in most other emission categories, but of the same order of magnitude as in carbon stock change estimates in other land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) categories, and in N₂O emissions from agricultural soils. Uncertainties in sink estimates of 1990 were lower, due to better availability of data. Results of this study indicate that inclusion of the forest carbon sink to GHG inventories reported to the UNFCCC increases uncertainties in net emissions notably. However, the decrease in precision is accompanied by an increase in the accuracy of the overall net GHG emissions due to improved completeness of the inventory. The results of this study can be utilised when planning future GHG mitigation protocols and emission trading schemes and when analysing environmental benefits of climate conventions.     

Exploring the spreading layer of GX 9+9 using RXTE and INTEGRAL

We have fitted ∼200 RXTE and INTEGRAL spectra of the neutron star (NS) low-mass X-ray binary (LMXB) GX 9+9 from 2002 to 2007 with a model consisting of a disc blackbody and another blackbody representing the spreading layer (SL), i.e. an extended accretion zone on the NS surface as opposed to the more traditional disc-like boundary layer. Contrary to theory, the SL temperature was seen to increase towards low SL luminosities, while the approximate angular extent had a nearly linear luminosity dependency. Comptonization was not required to adequately fit these spectra. Together with the ∼ 70° upper bound of inclination implied by the lack of eclipses, the best-fitting normalization of the accretion disc blackbody component implies a distance of ∼10 kpc, instead of the usually quoted 5 kpc.     

Fishing‐induced evolution of growth: concepts,mechanisms and the empirical evidence

The interest in fishing‐induced life‐history evolution has been growing in the last decade, in part because of the increasing number of studies suggesting evolutionary changes in life‐history traits, and the potential ecological and economic consequences these changes may have. Among the traits that could evolve in response to fishing, growth has lately received attention. However, critical reading of the literature on growth evolution in fish reveals conceptual confusion about the nature of ‘growth’ itself as an evolving trait, and about the different ways fishing can affect growth and size‐at‐age of fish, both on ecological and on evolutionary time‐scales. It is important to separate the advantages of being big and the costs of growing to a large size, particularly when studying life‐history evolution. In this review, we explore the selection pressures on growth and the resultant evolution of growth from a mechanistic viewpoint. We define important concepts and outline the processes that must be accounted for before observed phenotypic changes can be ascribed to growth evolution. When listing traits that could be traded‐off with growth rate, we group the mechanisms into those affecting resource acquisition and those governing resource allocation. We summarize potential effects of fishing on traits related to growth and discuss methods for detecting evolution of growth. We also challenge the prevailing expectation that fishing‐induced evolution should always lead to slower growth.     

A conceptual approach for assessing the impact of climate change on groundwater and related surface waters in cold regions (Finland)

A literature review of the impacts of anticipated climate change on unconfined aquifers is presented, along with a conceptual framework for evaluating the complex responses of surface and subsurface hydrology to climate variables in cold regions. The framework offers a way to conceptualize how changes in one component of the system may impact another by delineating the relationships among climate drivers, hydrological responses, and groundwater responses in a straight-forward manner. The model is elaborated in the context of shallow unconfined aquifers in the boreal environment of Finland. In cold conditions, climate change is expected to reduce snow cover and soil frost and increase winter floods. The annual surface water level maximum will occur earlier in spring, and water levels will decrease in summer due to higher evapotranspiration rates. The maximum recharge and groundwater level are expected to occur earlier in the year. Lower groundwater levels are expected in summer due to higher evapotranspiration rates. The flow regimes between shallow unconfined aquifers and surface water may change, affecting water quantity and quality in the surface and groundwater systems.     

Radar observations of asteroid 25143 Itokawa (1998 SF36)

Abstract— We observed 25143 Itokawa, the target of Japan's Hayabusa (MUSES‐C) sample‐return mission, during its 2001 close approach at Arecibo on twelve dates during March 18‐April 9 and at Goldstone on nine dates during March 20‐April 2. We obtained delay‐Doppler images with range resolutions of 100 ns (15 m) at Arecibo and 125 ns (19 m) at Goldstone. Itokawa's average circular polarization ratio at 13 cm, 0.26 ± 0.04, is comparable to that of Eros, so its cm‐to‐m surface roughness probably is comparable to that on Eros. Itokawa's radar reflectivity and polarization properties indicate a near‐surface bulk density within 20% of 2.5 g cm^?3. We present a preliminary estimate of Itokawa's shape, reconstructed from images with rather limited rotation‐phase coverage, using the method of Hudson (1993) and assuming the lightcurve‐derived spin period (12.132 hr) and pole direction (ecliptic long., lat. = 355°, ?84°) of Kaasalainen et al. (2003). The model can be described as a slightly asymmetrical, slightly flattened ellipsoid with extents along its principal axes of 548 times 312 times 276 m ± 10%. Itokawa's topography is very subdued compared to that of other asteroids for which spacecraft images or radar reconstructions are available. Similarly, gravitational slopes on our Itokawa model average only 9° and everywhere are less than 27°. The radar‐refined orbit allows accurate identification of Itokawa's close planetary approaches through 2170. If radar ranging planned for Itokawa's 2004 apparition succeeds, then tracking of Hayabusa during its 2005 rendezvous should reveal Yarkovsky perturbation of the asteroid's orbit.     

Comments on the relationship between the cluster-ridge pattern of mantled gneiss domes in eastern Finland and the Ni-Cu deposit clusters of the Kotalahti Nickel Belt

The clustering of the Ni-Cu deposits along the Kotalahti Nickel Belt and the clustering of ridges of mantled gneiss domes in eastern Finland are compared. The Ni-Cu occurrences seem to cluster at the southern ends of the dome ridges or on their southward continuations. It is suggested that there might be a genetic connection between the occurrence of Ni-Cu deposit clusters and the ridges of mantled gneiss domes.     

Multi-frequency studies of the non-stationary radiation of the blazar 3C 454.3

Long-term monitoring data at five radio frequencies from 4.8 to 37 GHz obtained at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, Metsahovi Radio Observatory of Aalto University, and the University of Michigan Radio Astronomy Observatory are used to analyze variations of the flux of the Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN) 3C 454.3. The dynamical characteristics of the three latest powerful flares from 2004 to 2010 are analyzed in detail. Observations in the gamma-ray (0.1–300 GeV), X-ray (2–10 kev, 15–50 keV), and optical are also used. Delays in the development of flares at different frequencies are derived. An empirical frequency dependence for the delays of flares from the gamma-ray to the radio is determined, which can be fit using a logarithmic low and remains the same from flare to flare. The physical characteristics of the central region of the AGN 3C 454.3 are used to estimate the size of its Strömgren sphere, taking into account the relevant mechanisms for heating and cooling the medium, as well as the adopted laws for the variation of the density and temperature with distance from the source of ionization. A model for the location of the radiation regions in the jet at various frequency ranges during the development of flares is proposed.     

Winter colonisation and succession of filamentous macroalgae on artificial substrates and possible relationships to Fucus vesiculosus settlement in early summer

During the reproduction period of Fucus vesiculosus, which occurs only once a year (in May–June) along the Finnish coast of the northern Baltic Sea, a thick carpet of filamentous algae often covers hard substrates suitable for zygote settlement. By placing out artificial substrates into the field, monthly over a period of eight months prior to F. vesiculosus settlement (October 2001–June 2002), we investigated the autumn/winter/spring colonisation and succession of filamentous algae and their possible relationships with the settlement success of F. vesiculosus under naturally variable field conditions. The substrates exposed in October 2001 became covered by filamentous brown algal Pilayella littoralis mats, which persisted over the settlement period of F. vesiculosus, but now also were accompanied by large amounts of the filamentous green alga Cladophora glomerata. The substrates exposed from November 2001 onwards hosted smaller amounts of P. littoralis during the winter and different filamentous algal communities at the time of F. vesiculosus settlement, i.e. less P. littoralis and C. glomerata, but Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, Ceramium tenuicorne and Ulva intestinalis instead. We observed recruits of F. vesiculosus on all substrates, except on the ones placed out in October 2001. Significantly more P. littoralis and C. glomerata on the October substrates may explain the failed F. vesiculosus recruitment, although we could not establish direct causal or correlational relationships between filamentous algae and F. vesiculosus settlement. We compared the results with a previous un-replicated pilot study in the same area demonstrating similar response patterns.     

Early Weichselian interstadial (MIS 5c) summer temperatures were higher than today in northern Fennoscandia

Only fragmentary biostratigraphical interstadial data exist from northern European high latitudes. The palaeoenvironmental interpretations for the early part of the Last Glaciation in northern Fennoscandia are mainly based on palynological evidence that suggests open birch woodland and a sub-arctic climate. Plant macrofossils from the Sokli sediment sequence in Finnish Lapland provide different evidence of interstadial climate conditions. The assemblage includes several species that currently have considerably more southern distribution ranges. This indicates that ca 100,000 years ago summer temperatures were warmer than today. The mean minimum July temperature may have been as high as 16 °C and the effective temperature sum may have been 1000 in day-degree units (d.d.), the modern values being 13 °C and 650 d.d., respectively. The contemporary astronomical forcing mechanisms may have resulted in a weaker north–south temperature gradient and a longer growing period, creating more favourable climate conditions compared with today.