Transaction costs analysis of low-carbon technologies

Transaction costs (TCs) must be taken into account when assessing the performance of policy instruments that create markets for the diffusion and commercialization of low-carbon technologies (LCTs). However, there are no comprehensive studies on the development and application of transaction cost analysis to LCTs. In this meta-analysis, a wide-ranging evaluation of TCs associated with energy efficiency, renewable energy, and carbon market technologies is provided. There is a plethora of different definitions of, and measurement techniques to estimate, TCs. There is wide variation in the quantitative estimates, which can be attributed to factors such as the definition used, data collection, quantification methods, the type and size of technologies, the regulatory frameworks, the complexity of transactions, and the maturity of policy instruments. It is concluded that TCs are highly specific to both LCTs and policy instruments and that a common methodological approach is needed to avoid misleading policy analysis of the extant and future assessments.

Policy relevance

Transaction costs (TCs) accrued by, for instance, the search for information, due diligence, monitoring and verification (M&V) activities, must be considered in the design, implementation, and assessment of policy instruments. Such costs can have a negative effect on the performance of policy instruments aimed at the diffusion and commercialization of low-carbon technologies. It is shown here that TC analysis is mostly technology and policy context-specific and hence that it is not advisable to make generalizations about sources and estimates. The nature and scale of TCs are likely to differ due to a variety of endogenous determinants (e.g. size and performance of technologies), exogenous drivers (e.g. regulatory policy frameworks), and methodological aspects (e.g. quantification techniques). Several measures and strategies have the potential to reduce TCs, including standardized full cost accounting systems, an ex ante M&V approach, project bundling, and streamlining of procedures.     

The seismotectonics of western Skagerrak

The seismically active Skagerrak region in the border area between Denmark and Norway has traditionally been associated with uncertain earthquake locations due to the limited station coverage in the region. A new seismic station in southern Norway and a recent update of the earthquake database of the Danish National Network have led to a much more complete and homogeneous data coverage of the Skagerrak area, giving the possibility of improved earthquake locations in the region. In this study, we relocate earthquakes in the Skagerrak area to obtain a more exact picture of the seismicity and investigate well-recorded events to determine the depth distribution. Hypocenter depths are found to be generally in the range 11–25 km. Furthermore, new composite focal mechanisms are determined for clusters of events with similar waveforms. Results indicate that the Skagerrak seismicity is associated with shallow, crustal faults oriented in the NS direction south of the Sorgenfrei–Tornquist Zone (STZ) as well as with the STZ itself. Mainly reverse faulting mechanisms along NE–SW oriented faults indicate maximum horizontal compression in the NW–SE direction. This is in agreement with World Stress Map generalizations, most likely associated with ridge push forces from the mid-Atlantic ridge, though modified probably by local crustal weaknesses.     

Bounding surface‐based modeling of compacted silty sand exhibiting suction dependent postpeak strain softening

This article focuses on modeling the strain hardening‐softening response of statically compacted silty sand as observed from a comprehensive series of suction‐controlled, consolidated‐drained triaxial tests accomplished in a fully automated, double‐walled triaxial test system via the axis‐translation technique. The constitutive model used in this work is based on the theory of Bounding Surface (BS) plasticity and is formulated within a critical state framework. The essential BS model parameters are calibrated using the full set of triaxial test results and then used for predictions of compacted silty sand response at matric suction states varying from 50 to 750 kPa. Complementary simulations using the Barcelona Basic Model have also been included, alongside BS model predictions, in order to get further enlightening insights into some of the main limitations and challenges facing both frameworks within the context of the experimental evidence resulting from the present research effort. In general, irrespective of the value of matric suction applied, the Barcelona Basic Model performs relatively well in predicting response at peak and critical state failure under low net confining pressure while the Bounding Surface Model performs relatively well under high net confining pressures.     

The detection and location of low magnitude earthquakes in northern Norway using multi-channel waveform correlation at regional distances

A fortuitous sequence of closely spaced earthquakes in the Rana region of northern Norway, during 2005, has provided an ideal natural laboratory for investigating event detectability using waveform correlation over networks and arrays at regional distances. A small number of events between magnitude 2.0 and 3.5 were recorded with a high SNR by the Fennoscandian IMS seismic arrays at distances over 600 km and three of these events, including the largest on 24 June, displayed remarkable waveform similarity even at relatively high frequencies. In an effort to detect occurrences of smaller earthquakes in the immediate geographical vicinity of the 24 June event, a multi-channel correlation detector for the NORSAR array was run for the whole calender year 2005 using the signal from the master event as a template. A total of 32 detections were made and all but 2 of these coincided with independent correlation detections using the other Nordic IMS array stations; very few correspond to signals detectable using traditional energy detectors. Permanent and temporary stations of the Norwegian National Seismic Network (NNSN) at far closer epicentral distances have confirmed that all but one of the correlation detections at NORSAR in fact correspond to real events. The closest stations at distances of approximately 10 km can confirm that the smallest of these events have magnitudes down to 0.5 which represents a detection threshold reduction of over 1.5 for the large-aperture NORSAR array and over 1.0 for the almost equidistant regional ARCES array. The incompleteness of the local network recordings precludes a comprehensive double-difference location for the full set of events. However, stable double-difference relative locations can be obtained for eight of the events using only the Lg phase recorded at the array stations. All events appear to be separated by less than 0.5 km. Clear peaks were observed in the NORSAR correlation coefficient traces during the coda of some of the larger events; the local stations confirm that these are in fact aftershocks exhibiting very similar waveforms to the main events. Many of the more marginal correlation detections are not made when the calculations are repeated using shorter signal segments, fewer sensors or more distant stations. We demonstrate in addition how these almost repeating seismic sources have been exploited to detect and measure timing anomalies at individual sites within the arrays and network.     

A seafloor experiment to monitor vertical deformation at the Lucky Strike volcano, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Decades of cruise-based exploration have provided excellent snapshots of the structure of mid-ocean ridges and have revealed that accretion is a mixture of steady-state and quantum events. Observatory-type studies are now needed to quantify the temporal evolution of these systems. A multi-disciplinary seafloor observatory site is currently being set up at the Lucky Strike volcano, in the axial valley of the slow spreading Mid-Atlantic ridge as a part of the MoMAR (monitoring of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge) initiative. The aim of this observatory is to better understand the dynamics of the volcano and the hydrothermal vents hosted at its summit as well as their plumbing systems. In August 2006, the GRAVILUCK cruise initiated an experiment to monitor the deformation of Lucky Strike volcano. A geodetic network was installed, and seafloor pressure, gravity and magnetic data were collected. In this paper, we present the method used to monitor volcanic deformation, which involves measuring relative depth difference between points within a seafloor geodesy network. We show that, taking into account oceanographic variability and measurement noise, the network should be able to detect vertical deformations of the order of 1 cm.     

SARAL/AltiKa Absolute Calibration from the Multi-Mission Corsica Facilities

The geodetic Corsica site was set up in 1998 in order to perform altimeter calibration of the TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) mission and subsequently, Jason-1 and OSTM/Jason-2. The scope of the site was widened in 2005 in order to undertake the calibration of the Envisat mission and most recently of SARAL/AltiKa. Here we present the first results from the latter mission using both indirect and direct calibration/validation approaches. The indirect approach utilizes a coastal tide gauge and, as a consequence, the altimeter derived sea surface height (SSH) needs to be corrected for the geoid slope. The direct approach utilizes a novel GPS-based system deployed offshore under the satellite ground track that permits a direct comparison with the altimeter derived SSH. The advantages and disadvantages of both systems (GPS-based and tide gauges) and methods (direct or indirect) will be described and discussed. Our results for O/IGD-R data show a very good consistency for these three kinds of products: their derived absolute SSH biases are consistent within 17 mm and their associated standard deviation ranges from 31 to 35 mm. The AltiKa absolute SSH bias derived from GPS-zodiac measurement using the direct method is ?54 ±10 mm based on the first 13 cycles.     

Quartz microstructures and fabrics in the Island of Groix (Brittany,France)

Quartz microstructures and fabrics in the southeastern part of the island of Groix developed during the last stages of the Palaeozoic synmetamorphic deformation. The zonation of the quartz microstructures in map view suggests an upward positive gradient of strain. The plastic flow plane in quartz found in folds with axes aligned parallel to the stretching lineation, is parallel to the axial planes of the folds. The dominant regional sense of shear, as deduced from quartz fabrics, corresponds to the northward displacement of the upper block. This sense of displacement supports the hypothesis made by previous workers that the synmetamorphic deformation in Groix occurred in a N-directed intra-lithospheric thrust rather than in a N-dipping subduction zone. Quartz c-axis patterns argue for the distinction of two synmetamorphic phases with different transport directions. The transition between these two phases is thought to have occurred progressively during the course of the thrusting.