Reef-building coral skeletons as chemical pollution (phosphorus) indicators

The inorganic and total phosphorus concentrations of the skeleton of reef-building corals have been determined on specimens from Bermuda, St Croix and Curacao. Concentrations determined on sub-samples dated by density band growth increments indicate that a record of seawater phosphorus is preserved which, in certain cases, is consistent with the location and time history of sewage and other phorphorus pollution episodes.     

Activity/composition relations in the ternary feldspars

Activity/composition relations are presented for high-structural state feldspars whose bulk compositions lie within the ternary system NaAlSi₃O₈ CaAl₂Si₂O₈-KAlSi₃O₈. The expressions are parameterized from the data for coexisting feldspars of Seck (1971a) using an asymmetric regular solution approximation for the excess Gibbs free energy of mixing and an Al-avoidance model for the configurational entropy of solution. The solution properties of the plagioclase and alkali-feldspar binaries have been made to conform to the recent work of Thompson and Hovis (1979) and Newton et al. (1980). Using the proposed model the ternary feldspar solvus is extrapolated in temperature (up to 1,500° C) and pressure (up to 5kbars). A new two-feldspar geothermometer is presented which provides somewhat more reasonable estimates of crystallization temperatures than the equations and graphs of Stornier (1975), Powell and Powell (1977), Brown and Parsons (1981) and Haselton et al. (1983). In conjunction, some criteria are suggested for establishing the existence of equilibrium tie-lines between coexisting ternary feldspars in rhyolites and trachytes. Calculated values of the activity of KAlSi₃O₈ in plagioclase are examined in some detail. These compare favorably with independent estimates obtained from experimentally grown plagioclases precipitating at liquidus temperatures from igneous rocks of widely varying alkali contents.     

Scale-dependent fractal dimensions of topographic surfaces: An empirical investigation, with applications in geomorphology and computer mapping

Fractional Brownian surfaces have been widely discussed as an appropriate model for the statistical behavior of topographic surfaces. The fractals model proposes that topographic surfaces are statistically self-similar, and that a single parameter, the fractal dimension, applies at all scales. This paper presents the results of empirical examinations of 17 topographic samples. Only one of these samples shows the statistical behavior predicted by the fractals model; however, in 15 of the 17 samples, the surfaces' variograms could be adequately described by ranges of scales having constant fractal dimension, separated by distinct scale breaks. For scale ranges between adjacent breaks, surface behavior should be that predicted by the fractals model; the breaks represent characteristic horizontal scales, at which surface behavior changes substantially. These scale breaks are especially important for cartographic representations and digital elevation models, since they represent scales at which there is a distinct change in the relation between sampling interval and the associated error.     

Case studies on the origin of basalt: III. Petrogenesis of the Mauna Ulu eruption,Kilauea, 1969–1971

During the Mauna Ulu flank eruption on Kilauea, Hawaii, the concentrations in the lavas of the minor elements K, P, Na and Ti, and the incompatible trace elements (analyzed by isotope dilution) K, Rb, Cs, Ba, Sr, and the REE (except Yb) decreased monotonically and linearly with the time (or date) of the eruption. At the same time, the concentrations of the major elements and of Yb, and the ratios of K/Rb, K/Cs, Ba/Rb, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd remained constant. Most of the scatter in the raw concentration data is removed by a simple correction for olivine (plus chromite) fractionation previously established by Wright et al. (1975). These results are explained by simple equilibrium partial melting of a uniform source. The degree of melting increased by about 20% of the initial value during the course of the eruption. The trace element data are inverted by the method originated by Minster and Allègre (1978) and simplified by Hofmann and Feigenson (1983). The source has the following element (or isotope) ratios: K/Rb=501±7, Ba/Rb=14.0±0.5, Rb/Cs=95±7, Rb/Sr=0.0193 (+0.0045, –0.0090), (Ce/Ba)_CN= 1.1±0.1, (Sr/Ba)_CN=1.19 (+0.30, –0.19), ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr=0.703521±0.000016, and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd=0.512966±0.000008. The REE pattern of the source has a nearly flat or slightly negative slope (=relative LREE enrichment) between Ce and Dy and a strongly positive slope between Dy and Yb. However, this relative HREE enrichment is poorly constrained by the analytical data, is highly model dependent and may not be a true source feature. The Yb concentration in the source is particularly poorly constrained because it is essentially constant in the melts. On the other hand, this special feature demonstrates that Yb must be buffered by a mineral phase with a high partition coefficient for Yb, namely garnet. The calculated clinopyroxene/garnet ratio in the source is roughly equal to one. In contrast, the source of Kohala volcano had previously been found to contain little or no garnet.     

Argon diffusion domains in K-feldspar I: microstructures in MH-10

Samples of MH-10, a K-feldspar thought to contain discrete diffusion domains for argon, have been examined by light and TEM microsopy to search for domain boudaries. We examined both unheated K-feldspar separates and samples heated in vacuum between 750 and 1150°C in order to characterize the initial microstructure as well as any changes resulting from laboratory heating. The MH-10 rock shows almost no evidence of plastic deformation, and the K-feldspar does not possess networks of dislocations which might define a subgrain structure derived from external stresses. Three classes of substructure are present in the K-feldspar, but only the third appears to have been affected by laboratory heating: (1) Cross-hatched extinction in light microscope is common but variably developed. TEM reveals almost no albite/pericline twinning but tweed microstructure is ubiquitous. (2) Turbid zones occur with about 5 volume % abundance. Micropores, <1 to 2m in diameter, characterize these regions, which often also contain bleds of albite, up to 40 m indiameter, TEM shows these turbid zones to be very complex with intricate twin and tweed structures at the sub-micron scale and numerous dislocation and strain features. (3) Albitic exsolution lamellae (<1 m thick, 20 m long and separated by 1 m) are rarely seen in the light microscope but TEM shows that 0.01 m thick by 0.2–1 m long lamellae, separated by 0.1 to 0.5 m, occur in about 20% of the sample. These lamellae are disk-shaped, have a semi-coherent or coherent relationship to the host K-feldspar, and seem to disappear upon heating to 750°C. Extensive diffusion studies have been conducted on HM-10, and the results analyzed in terms of distribution of sizes of diffusion domains. The preferred result of the analyses was a distribution consisting of three distinct sizes. The largest domain size identified in this way is approximately 50 to 100 m, and this corresponds to blocks of K-feldspar defined by the network of fractured/turbid zones. The smallest domain size inferred from diffusion analysis is 0.1 m which corresponds to the spacing between albite exsolution lamellae that may represent fast diffusion pathways. Alternatively, the modulated argon distribution accompanying the lamellar variation in feldspar composition may result in an overestimation of the initial diffusion coefficients. Even though a promising agreement exists between domain analyses based upon diffusional and microstructural analyses, at least two questions remain unanswered. Firstly, no clear candidate has been identified for a domain of intermediate size. Secondly, the diffusion analysis has been formulated with independent gas release from all domains, whereas the observed structures are likely to be nested (i.e., small domains exist inside bigger domains) with the network of semi-coherent lamellar boundaries having connectivity and permeability which can provide only a modest increase in argon diffusivity over bulk values.     

Acidity of twelve northern New England (U.S.A.) lakes in recent centuries

Studies of sediment cores from 12 acidic lakes in granitic, forested and uninhabited catchments in northern New England, U.S.A. produced diatom-inferred pH (IpH) 5.2 to 5.8 and alkalinity (Ialk) –12 to 31 µeq l^–1, with slowly declining values at some lakes, for one to four centuries prior to logging. Increases of IpH (0.05 to 0.60) and Ialk (5 to 40 µeq l^–1) correlate with logging in the catchments in the early-1800s to early-1900s. Recovery to pre-logging IpH and Ialk correlates with forest succession toward conifers, and is completed in the late-1800s to mid-1900s. Beginning at 1915–1920 (4 lakes), 1930–1950 (4 lakes) and 1965–1970 (4 lakes), IpH and Ialk start decreasing below pre-logging values due to atmospheric acidic deposition, leading to respective total decreases of 0.10 to 0.45 (X=0.25) and 5 to 25 µeq l^–1 (X=15). Inputs of anthropogenic Pb, Zn, V, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and soot from the atmosphere are first detectable in early- to late-1800s sediment, and Cu in late-1800s sediment, increase rapidly in the late-1800s to mid-1900s, and level off or decrease since the 1960s — partly due to emission controls. Decreasing Ca, Mn, and possibly Zn relative to other metals and normalized to organic content, and increasing flux of Fe to the lakes, indicate soil and water acidification after 1900.This is the fourteenth of a series of papers to be published by this journal which is a contribution of the Paleoecological Investigation of Recent Lake Acidification (PIRLA) project. Drs. D. F. Charles and D. R. Whitehead are guest editors for this series.     

The energetics of aluminum solubility into MgSiO3 perovskite at lower mantle conditions

Experiments [T. Irifune (1994) Nature 370, 131–133; E. Ito et al. (1998) Geophys. Res. Lett. 25, 821–824; A. Kubo, M. Akaogi (2000) Phys. Earth Planet. Int. 121, 85–102] indicate that (Mg,Fe)SiO₃ perovskite, commonly believed to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, is the preferred host phase of Al₂O₃ in the Earth’s lower mantle. Aiming to better understand the effects of Al₂O₃ on the thermoelastic properties of the lower mantle, we use atomistic models to examine the chemistry and elasticity of solid solutions within the MgSiO₃(perovskite)–Al₂O₃(corundum)–MgO(periclase) mineral assemblage under conditions pertinent to the lower mantle: low Al cation concentrations, P=25–100 GPa, and T=1000–2000 K. We assess the relative stabilities of two likely substitution mechanisms of Al into MgSiO₃ perovskite in terms of reactions involving MgSiO₃, MgO, and Al₂O₃, in a manner similar to the 0 Kelvin calculations of Brodholt [J.P. Brodholt (2000) Nature 407, 620–622] and Yamamoto et al. [T. Yamamoto et al. (2003) Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 206, 617–625]. We determine the equilibrium composition of the assemblage by examining the chemical potentials of the Al₂O₃ and MgO components in solid solution with MgSiO₃, as functions of concentration. We find that charge coupled substitution dominates at lower mantle pressures and temperatures. Oxygen vacancy-forming substitution accounts for 3–4% of Al substitution at shallow lower mantle conditions, and less than 1% in the deep mantle. For these two pressure regimes, the corresponding adiabatic bulk moduli of aluminous perovskite are 2% and 1% lower than that of pure MgSiO₃ perovskite.     

A simple method of magnetic declination fluctuation correction for long single-streamer positioning in a seismic survey

In single‐streamer acquisition, the use of acoustic transducers to constrain the receiver positions is not possible, thus implying the use of compass birds to gather information on the streamer location. The compasses are, however, sensitive to the declination of the local magnetic field of the earth, and local fluctuations not accounted for can degrade the accuracy of reconstructed positions. In order to correct these small‐scale fluctuations, we propose a simple deterministic method to calculate a spatial correction to apply to the compasses that enhances the positioning accuracy. The local compass declination is calculated after a first reconstruction on the whole survey area. This method was applied with success to navigation data from a 3D survey offshore Japan, and the positioning accuracy was improved to the level of the DGPS accuracy.     

Velocity model estimation for depth imaging: Comparison of three tomography methods on a 2D real data set

The estimation of velocity models is still crucial in seismic reflection imaging as it controls the quality of the depth‐migrated image, which is the basis of geological interpretation. Among the numerous existing methods for velocity determination, tomographic methods are very attractive for their efficiency and ability to retrieve heterogeneities of the medium. We present three tomographic methods in order to estimate heterogeneous velocity models from 2D prestack PP reflection data: a traveltime tomography in the time‐migrated domain, a traveltime and slope tomography in the non‐migrated time domain, and a slope tomography in the depth‐migrated domain. The first method (traveltime tomography in the time domain) is based on continuous picked events, whereas the two slope tomographic methods, one in the time domain and the other in the depth domain, are based on locally coherent events, with no assumptions about reflector geometry or the unknown velocity field. The purpose of this paper is not to describe in detail the theoretical basis and implementation of the methods, but to apply and compare their output using the same marine real data set. Based on the estimated velocity models, the migrated images and the common‐image gathers from the three processing routes, the relative strengths and weaknesses of the methods are discussed. Finally, similarities are indicated and potential alternative approaches are proposed.