Paleofluid analysis from fracture-fill cements in the Asmari limestones of the Kuh-I-Mond field, SW Zagros, Iran

Kuh-I-Mond field in the Zagros foreland basin is a conventional heavy oil resource and is composed of fractured carbonates whose fractures were filled by calcite, dolomite, and anhydrite cements. Oil inclusions occurred within the fracture-fill cements indicate that fractures were open and played an active role during oil migration and charge. The highest measured values for secondary porosities belong to fractures in Asmari Formation, which is characterized by significant amounts of vug- and fracture-filling cements. Fractures facilitated fluid circulation and subsequently dissolution of allochems and high Mg carbonates. In contrast, fine-grained carbonate facies were less cemented, and thus, porosity enhancement by cement dissolution was insignificant. Temperature profiles of oil inclusions in the dolomite, calcite, and anhydrite minerals characterized by distinct variations in the homogenization temperatures (Th) that are divided into two ranges below 50°C in anhydrites and from 45°C to 125°C in dolomites and calcites. The lower Th ranges for anhydrite suggests that it may have formed at shallower burial depths during early to middle diagenesis. The oil inclusions display trend for increasing temperature downward which conform to Formation geothermal gradient. In other word, the decreasing trend of Th temperatures upward within Asmari Formation that can be observed in Th versus depth plot is consistent with the uplift events at Late Miocene time and later that caused removal of about 1,300 m of the crest of the Kuh-I-Mond anticline. Vitrinite reflectance data from source rock intervals in the field area do not support vertical migration of locally generated hydrocarbons into the Kuh-I-Mond accumulation, and long-distance lateral oil migration and charge from a source kitchen to the southwest is proposed. Vitrinite reflectance data from this dolomite and limestone reservoir suggest low maturation levels corresponding to paleotemperatures less than 50°C. The observed maturation level (<0.5% Ro) does not exceed values for simple burial maturation based on the estimated burial history. Also, homogenization temperatures from fluid inclusion populations in calcite and dolomites show expected good correlation with reflectance-derived temperatures. The Th data represent pore fluids became warmer and more saline during burial. As aqueous fluid inclusions in calcite veins were homogenized between 22°C and 90°C with a decrease in salinity from 22 to 18 eq.?wt.% NaCl. The Th values suggest a change in water composition and that dolomite and calcite cements might have precipitated from petroleum-derived fluids. The hydrocarbon fluid inclusions microthermometry data suggest that the reservoir was being filled by heavy black oils in reservoir during Cenozoic. Aqueous fluid inclusions hosted by calcite equant sparry/fossil cavity fills suggest low cementation temperatures (<45°C) and high salinities (19 eq.?wt.% NaCl), while those in dolostones are characterized by highly variable homogenization temperature (52°C to 125°C) and salinities (6.5 to 20 eq.?wt.% NaCl).     

A non‐coaxial constitutive model for sand deformation under rotation of principal stress axes

A constitutive model for the simulation of non‐coaxiality, an aspect of anisotropic behavior of sand subjected to the rotation of the principal stress axes, is presented in this paper. Experimental studies have shown that non‐coaxiality or non‐coincidence of principal plastic strain increments with principal stress axes under loadings involving the rotation of principal stress axes may be considerable. Besides, the rotation of the principal stress axes results in dramatic effects on stiffness and dilatant behavior of sand. Therefore, the consequences of principal stress axes rotation on deformational behavior, dilatancy and soil stiffness must be taken into account in theoretical and practical problems. To this aim, the following steps are taken: (1) A general relationship for flow direction with respect to possibility of non‐coaxial flow is developed. Moreover, special circumstances linking non‐coaxiality to instantaneous interaction between loading and soil fabric are proposed. (2) Proposing novel expressions for plastic modulus and dilatancy function, the model is enforced to provide realistic simulations when sand is subjected to the rotation of the principal stress axes. Finally, with numerous examples and comparisons, the model capabilities are shown under various stress paths and drainage conditions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of earthquake‐induced axial load fluctuations on asymmetric frame–wall–rocking foundation systems

Fluctuations in axial load imposed on a rocking footing will affect its moment capacity, the shape of its moment–rotation hysteresis, and potentially the system's seismic performance. Structural asymmetry increases the likelihood of axial load variation during earthquake excitations. To investigate this issue, a unique centrifuge testing program was carried out on low‐rise frame–wall–rocking foundation systems. In this paper, the seismic behaviors of asymmetric and symmetric models from this test program are systematically compared. Experimental results reveal that placing the lateral force resisting shear wall outboard produces significant axial load fluctuation, which in turn greatly deteriorate the lateral load‐carrying capacity of a foundation rocking dominated frame–wall system, particularly in its weak direction. However, it strengthens the system when loading is towards the shear wall, leading to a highly asymmetric hysteretic response. During earthquake loading, all asymmetric rocking foundation systems observe smaller peak roof accelerations, but larger peak and permanent roof drifts compared with the symmetric systems. Despite these differences in response, the axial load fluctuation and structural asymmetry do not significantly change the relative energy dissipated by the rocking foundations and inelastic structural components within each frame–wall–rocking foundation model. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Probabilistic landslide hazard assessment using Copula modeling technique

A new probabilistic methodology for landslide hazard assessment in regional scale using Copula modeling technique is presented. The current probabilistic landslide hazard analyses are performed under the assumption that landslide hazard elements, such as magnitude, frequency, and location, are independent. In this paper, a general approach is proposed to consider the possible dependence among hazard elements. Part of the Seattle, WA area was selected to evaluate the competence of the presented method. A total of 357 slope failure events and their corresponding topography and geology data were included in the study to develop and test the model. Based on the results, the mean success rates of the presented model in predicting landslide occurrence are 90 % in hazardous area and 12 % in safe locations on average, while these success rates are 63 and 44 % when these hazard elements were treated as mutually independent.     

Effects of environmental factors on classification of loessderived soils and clay minerals variations,northern Iran

Land-use type under different topographic conditions and human activities affects soil development. We investigated the effects of land-use, topography and human activity on soil classification changes in the Toshan watershed in northern Iran. Seven representative pedons derived from loess parent materials were studied on different land-uses and topographic positions. The studied pedons in forest (FO) on backslopes and footslope were classified as Calcic Haploxeralfs and Typic Haploxeralfs, respectively. The soils in abandoned lands (AB) and orchards (OR), where formerly under natural forests, located on the shoulder and backslopes positions were classified as Calcic Haploxeralfs and Vertic Haploxeralfs, respectively. Well-developed argillic horizons as indicators for higher degrees of soil evolution were observed in more-stable areas under the natural forest or less disturbed areas. Clay lessivage through these soil profiles have led to formation of Typic or Calcic Haploxeralfs, while under croplands (CP) were classified as Typic Calcixerepts. Conversion of sloping deforested areas to CP along with inappropriate management have accelerated soil erosion, resulting in unstable conditions in which decalcification and formation of developed soils cannot occur. Paddy cultivation in flat areas has caused to reduced conditions and formation of Typic Haplaquepts. Because of unfavorable conditions for chemical weathering (e.g. lower water retention compared to more-stable areas) no vermiculite was detected in the CP. The results showed that evolution and classification of the studied soils were strongly affected by land-use type, topography and management.     

Analysis of temporal and spatial variations in groundwater nitrate and development of its pollution plume: a case study in Karaj aquifer

Considering the importance of groundwater resources in water-supply demands in arid and semiarid areas such as Iran, it is essential to investigate the risk of groundwater pollution. Nitrate is one of the main pollutants that penetrate into the groundwater from various sources such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and domestic and industrial sewage. Unfortunately currently, nitrate contamination of the aquifers is a serious problem in Iran. The Karaj aquifer is not exempted, and the nitrate pollution zone, with concentrations far beyond the permitted limit (50 mg/L), expands fast. In this paper, the long-term groundwater-quality data (from 2000 to 2013) collected from Alborz Province Water and Wastewater Company were analyzed using ArcGIS10 and statistical software, and the spatial and temporal patterns of nitrate pollution in drinking-water wells in the Karaj plain and effective parameters (such as depth to groundwater level, hydraulic gradient, land use, precipitation, and urban, agricultural and industrial wastewater) were investigated. The authors also investigated the status of nitrate concentration variation using the concepts of geostatistics, based on determinations from 62 to 194 surveyed wells with a suitable distribution across the plain. With respect to the relationship between quality parameters, hydrogeological status of the aquifer and land usage, causes of the increase in the concentration of nitrate in the water and its trend were investigated as well. Results revealed that the nitrate levels in the northern portion of the study area were the highest with maximum concentrations of 181.7 mg/L from 2000 to 2013. Based on nitrate concentration distribution maps, the levels of nitrate increased from 2006 onwards to 26–100 mg/L. Unfortunately from 2008 to 2012, a pollution zone with a nitrate water concentration of 101–150 mg/L has been observed and even a concentration of 180 mg/L has been determined. In 2000, the entire aquifer area has been drinkable but with the increase in nitrate concentration, the area with undrinkable water has expanded to 21% in 2003, 24% in 2005, 33% in 2007, 39% in 2009, 43% in 2011 and 44% in 2013. The results of this study could provide valuable information with on the status of nitrate water concentrations in the Karaj plain which demands proper strategies and qualitative approaches in the future.