The Karoo Basin of South Africa: type basin for the coal-bearing deposits of southern Africa

The coal-bearing sediments and coal seams of the Karoo Basin, Southern Africa are described and discussed. The Karoo Basin is bounded on its southern margin by the Cape Fold Belt, onlaps onto the Kaapvaal Craton in the north and is classified as a foreland basin. Coal seams are present within the Early Permian Vryheid Formation and the Triassic Molteno Formation.The peats of the Vryheid Formation accumulated within swamps in a cool temperate climatic regime. Lower and upper delta plain, back-barrier and fluvial environments were associated with peat formation. Thick, laterally extensive coal seams have preferentially accumulated in fluvial environments. The coals are in general inertinite-rich and high in ash. However, increasing vitrinite and decreasing ash contents within seams occur from west to east across the coalfields. The Triassic Molteno coal seams accumulated with aerially restricted swamps in fluvial environments. These Molteno coals are thin, laterally impersistent, vitrinite-rich and shaly, and formed under a warm temperate climatic regime.Palaeoclimate, depositional systems, differential subsidence and basin tectonics influence to varying degrees, the maceral content, thickness and lateral extent of coal seams. However, the geographic position of peat-forming swamps within a foreland basin, coupled with basin tectonics and differential subsidence are envisaged as the primary controls on coal parameters. The Permian coals are situated in proximal positions on the passive margin of the foreland basin. Here, subsidence was limited which enhanced oxidation of organic matter and hence the formation of inertinitic coals. The coals in this tectonic setting are thick and laterally extensive. The Triassci coals are situated within the tectonically active foreland basin margin. Rapid subsidence and sedimentation rates occurred during peat formation which resulted in the preservation of thin, laterally impersistent, high ash, vitrinite-rich, shaly coals.     

Rock warming and drying under simulated intertidal conditions,part II: weathering and biological influences on evaporative cooling and near‐surface micro‐climatic conditions as an example of biogeomorphic ecosystem engineering

The way in which rocks and engineering materials heat‐up and dry‐out in the intertidal zone is of relevance to both weathering and ecology. These behaviours can be measured in the laboratory under controlled conditions designed to replicate those occurring in the field. Previous studies have demonstrated differences in thermal behaviours between rock types and through time as a result of soiling in terrestrial environments, but the influence of weathering and colonization on rock behaviours in the intertidal zone has not been previously assessed. We measured the warming and drying of blocks of rock (limestone and granite) and marine concrete during ‘low‐tide’ events simulated in the laboratory, before and after a period of exposure (eight months) on rock platforms in Cornwall, UK. As well as differences between the material types, temperatures of control (unexposed) and field‐exposed blocks differed in the order of 1 to 2 °C. Drying behaviours were also different after field exposure. Differences during the first few hours of exposure to air and heat were attributed to discolouration and albedo effects. Over longer periods of time, changes in the availability of near‐surface pore water as a result of micro‐scale bioerosion of limestone and the development of bio‐chemical crusts on marine concrete [observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM)] are suggested as mechanisms enhancing and reducing, respectively, the efficiency of evaporative cooling. The retention of moisture by epilithic biofilms may also influence thermal and drying behaviours of granite. These observations represent one of the first examples of cross‐scalar biogeomorphic linkages in the intertidal zone. The significance of the results for the subsequent efficiency of weathering, and near‐surface micro‐climatic conditions experienced by colonizing organisms is discussed. The involvement of microorganisms in the creation of more (or less) ecologically stressful conditions through the alteration of substratum geomorphic properties and behaviours is suggested as an example of ‘biogeomorphic ecosystem engineering’. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于生态足迹的区域生态适度人口研究——以新疆生产建设兵团为例

适度人口取决于生态、经济和土地等多要素的综合承载力。介绍了生态足迹模型的基本概念和计算方法,并运用该模型对兵团1995—2008年的生态足迹和生态承载力进行了计算,在此基础上对兵团的1995—2010年的生态适度人口进行了估算。结果表明,1995—1999年兵团的实际人口虽然在增加,但相对于生态适度人口并没有出现过剩;2000—2010年兵团生态适度人口在不断下降,实际人口和过剩人口却在不断增加。兵团目前已经出现了过度人口和生态赤字,人地矛盾相对紧张,生态适度人口规模是不合理的。     

非均质地基中平面应变隧道开挖面稳定上限分析

非均质是软黏土地基中比较普遍的现象,而目前隧道开挖面稳定研究中比较成熟的理论主要是针对均质土体。因此,从塑性极限分析上限法的基本原理出发,采用平面应变隧道刚体平动破坏模式(多块体上限法),考虑软黏土地基的非均质性,推导了平面应变隧道极限支护压力关于隧道埋深、土体重度及土体强度的上限公式。通过与其他方法的比较分析,证明了极限分析方法在隧道开挖面稳定性方面的可行性;利用该方法的计算结果详细探讨了隧道开挖面稳定的影响因素;而且由计算结果可知,地基土的非均质性在影响隧道开挖面极限支护压力的同时,也影响着隧道开挖破坏面的位置和形状,为工程实践提供重要的理论依据。     

The use of7LiOH-impregnated filters for the collection of acidic gases and analysis by instrumental neutron activation analysis

A simple system was designed using⁷LiOH-impregnated filters to collect acidic gases from ambient air and from highly concentrated volcanic plumes or gas streams. These filters were developed for analysis using instrumental neutron activation analysis, but other analytical techniques could be used as well. The sampling system was designed to use a series of 1–3 M⁷LiOH-impregnated filters to collect high concentrations of acidic gases found in gas plumes of active volcanoes. The filters are quantitative for SO₂ and the halide acids when sufficient base is present to neutralize the acidic species. Extremely high concentrations of SO₂ may not be collected quantitatively since SO₂ is a relatively weak Lewis acid compared to the halide acids. The acidic oxides of Sb, As, and Se were also collected quantitatively. A particle filter preceded the impregnated filters in order to remove particles from the fumes. This system has proven effective under difficult sampling conditions and, since it is portable and light weight, it could be used for many volcanological applications where high levels of acidic gaseous phase species need to be collected.     

Influence of m-cresol purple indicator additions on the pH of seawater samples: correction factors evaluated from a chemical speciation model

The perturbation of the indicator m-cresol purple on the pH in seawater is illustrated in diagrams, representing measurements in 1-cm and 5-cm cells. The diagrams apply to a measured pH interval of 7.4–8.4 using a 2-mM stock solution of m-cresol purple sodium salt dissolved in seawater. The magnitude of the perturbation is described as correction values, i.e., the change in seawater pH caused by the indicator. The diagrams are based on calculations made by using the equilibrium speciation programme, MARINHALT. From these calculations, and least squares fitting methods, pH correction values are described in terms of the pH difference between each seawater sample and the pH of an indicator stock solution. Calculations are performed for a typical high latitude water and a north Pacific deep water. Diagrams are presented for a salinity of 35 and a temperature of 15°C. Responses to salinities between 32 and 36 and temperatures 15–25°C are illustrated as well. A ±0.05 pH difference between a seawater sample and an indicator stock solution gives a correction of less than 0.001 pH unit for a 1-cm cell. For a 5-cm cell, pH differences between the indicator stock solution and a seawater sample as large as ±0.3 cause corrections smaller than ±0.001 pH unit. Calculations demonstrate that the five-fold lower indicator concentration used with 5-cm cells decreases the perturbation effect by approximately a factor of five relative to 1-cm cells.