Parametric acoustic source beamwidth control

In addition to its narrow beamwidth and wide-band capability, the underwater parametric acoustic source has the advantage of maintaining a relatively constant beamwidth over a wide range of difference frequencies. However, for some applications, the beamwidth of the difference frequency is narrower than desired or an adjustable beamwidth is required. This article describes techniques by which the beamwidth at a given difference frequency can be increased and varied over a 3-to-1 range by controlling the input waveform and amplitude to the transducer. The effect of the waveform changes on the harmonic content of the difference-frequency energy is also discussed.     

The Global Stratotype Section and Point （GSSP） for the base of the Holocene Series/Epoch （Quaternary System/Period） in the NGRIP ice core

The Greenland ice core from NorthGRIP （NGRIP） contains a proxy climate record across the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary of unprecedented clarity and resolution. Analysis of an array of physical and chemical parameters within the ice enables the base of the Holocene, as reflected in the first signs of climatic warming at the end of the Younger Dryas/Greenland Stadial 1 cold phase, to be located with a high degree of precision.     

Ozone and PAN Formation Inside and Outside of the Berlin Plume – Process Analysis and Numerical Process Simulation

During the BERLIOZ field phase on 20 July 1998 a 40 km wide ozone-plume 30 to 70 km north of Berlin in the lee of the city was detected. The ozone mixing ratio inside the plume was app. 15 ppb higher than outside, mainly caused by high ozone precursor emissions in Berlin, resulting in a net chemical ozone production of 6.5 ppb h^–1, which overcompensates ozone advection of –3.6 ppb h^–1 andturbulent diffusion of –1.1 ppb h^–1. That means, although moreozone leaves the control volume far in the lee of Berlin than enters it at the leeside cityborder and although turbulent diffusion causes a loss of ozone in the leeside control volume the chemical production inside the volume leads to a net ozone increase. Using a semi-Lagrangian mass budget method to estimate the net ozone production, 5.0 ppb h^–1 are calculated for theplume. This means a fraction of about 20% of ozone in the plume is producedby local emissions, therefore called `home made' by the Berlin emissions. For the same area KAMM/DRAIS simulations using an observation based initialisation, results in a net production rate between 4.0 and 6.5 ppbh^–1, while the threefold nested EURAD model gives 6.0 ppbh^–1. The process analysis indicates in many cases goodagreement (10% or better) between measurements and simulations not only in the ozone concentrations but also with respect to the physical and chemical processes governing the total change. Remaining differences are caused by different resolution in time and space of the models and measurements as well as by errors in the emission calculation.The upwind-downwind differences in PAN concentrations are partly similar to those of ozone, because in the BERLIOZ case they are governed mainly by photochemical production. While in the stable boundary layer at night and windward of Berlin 0.1 to 0.3 ppb are detected, in the centre of the plume at noon concentrations between 0.75 ppb and 1.0 ppb are measured. The O₃/PAN ratio is about 80 to 120 and thus due to the relatively lowPAN concentrations significantly higher than found in previous studies. The low PAN formation on 20 July, was mainly restricted by the moderate nonmethane hydrocarbon levels, whereas high PAN concentrations of 3.0 ppb on 21 July, are caused by local production in the boundary layer and by large scale advection aloft.     

Disc heating in NGC 2985

Various processes have been proposed to explain how galaxy discs acquire their thickness. A simple diagnostic for ascertaining this 'heating' mechanism is provided by the ratio of the vertical to radial velocity dispersion components. In a previous paper we have developed a technique for measuring this ratio, and demonstrated its viability on the Sb system NGC 488. Here we present follow-up observations of the morphologically similar Sab galaxy NGC 2985, still only the second galaxy for which this ratio has been determined outside the solar neighbourhood. The result is consistent with simple disc-heating models that predict ratios of σ _z σ _R less than one.     

Über die Beziehungen des „Cenomans“ zur Gosau in den Nördlichen Kalkalpen und ihre Auswirkungen auf die paläogeographischen und tektonischen Vorstellungen

Zusammenfassung Die Beziehungen des Cenomans der Nördlichen Kalkalpen zur Gosau betreffen die Stratigraphie und die Paläogeographie.Das ehemalige Cenoman wird heute zu den Branderfleck-Schichten gestellt und hat aufgrund der Neuuntersuchung der Foraminiferenfauna eine stratigraphische Reichweite vom Untercenoman bis in das Untercampan. Anhand von fünf ausgesuchten Profilteilen aus den Bayerischen Kalkalpen wird kurz die lithologische Entwicklung und die Biostratigraphie aufgezeigt. Cenoman und Gosau überlappen sich stratigraphisch. Eine Schichtlücke im Oberturon als Ausdruck der prägosauischen/mediterranen Faltungsphase gibt es nicht.Olistholithe in Flachwasser-Fazies aus olisthostromatischen Sedimenten werden von einer im Süden gelegenen Schwellenregion bezogen. Die Existenz dieser Oberaudorfer Schwelle ist für den Zeitraum Cenoman bis Santon gesichert. Sie trennte ab dem Coniac die Branderfleck-Schichten im Norden von den altersgleichen Gosau-Sedimenten im Süden.Die basale Gosau des Unterinntals wurde insbesondere am Florianiberg bei Oberaudorf untersucht. Dabei fielen drei Typen von Unterkreide-Geröllen, vorwiegend in Urgon-Fazies, auf, die stratigraphisch in das Apt zu stellen sind.Die drei genannten Aspekte, Stratigraphie der Branderfleck-Schichten, Olistholithe in Flachwasser-Fazies von der Oberaudorfer Schwelle und die unterkretazischen Urgon-Gerölle der basalen Gosau, führten zu neuen Vorstellungen über die paläogeographische EntWicklung des mittleren Teils der Nördlichen Kalkalpen vom Barrême bis zum Santon. Es wird wahrscheinlich gemacht, daß die kalkalpine Urgon-Schwelle (Barrême-Apt) auf dem südlichen Bajuvarikum und/oder auf dem nördlichen Tirolikum gelegen ist und vom Barrême bis zum Priabon aufgrund der tektonischen Raumverengung allmählich nach Norden gewandert ist. Dabei hat sie immer wieder Urgon-Gerölle geliefert (Dynamisches Modell). Der Nachweis lückenloser Sedimentation auf der Lechtal-Decke, insbesondere über dieTuron/Coniac-Grenze hinweg, nimmt dem bisher stärksten Argument, das für die prä gosauische/mediterrane Phase sprach, gänzlich seine Wirksamkeit.In der Kritik der Phasenlehre wird der Ablauf tektonischer Ereignisse im Kalkalpin zur Kreidezeit in FormStillescher Faltungsphasen abgelehnt. Es handelt sich vielmehr um kontinuierliche Langzeitvorgänge, die sich vorwiegend unter Meeresbedeckung abgespielt haben.

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Between the Cenomanian and the Gosau Beds of the Northern Calcareous Alps there exists a stratigraphical and palaeogeographical relationship.The former Cenomanian is now included in the Branderfleck Beds (Gaupp 1980, 1982) and in accordance with the recently investigated foraminiferal fauna its stratigraphical range reaches from Lower Cenomanian to Lower Campanian. Parts of five selected sections of the Bavarian Alps are presented with their lithology and biostratigraphy.The Cenomanian and the Gosau Beds overlap stratigraphically and there is no hiatus in the Upper Turonian with could express a Pregosavian/Mediterranean tectonic phase.Olistoliths of shallow marine origin are derived from the southern shoal ridge. Their facies is briefly described and figured. The existance of this ridge (Oberaudorfer Schwelle,Weidich 1982 b), is certain for the interval from Cenomanian to Santonian. From Coniacian times onwards this ridge separates the Branderfleck Beds in the North from the Gosau Beds in the South.The basal Gosau Beds of the Inn valley have been studied in detail at the Florianiberg near Oberaudorf. There are three types of pebbles from the Lower Cretaceous Urgonian facies. This Urgonian facies corresponds well to that ofHagn (1982 b), but is of Aptian age.The three aspects: stratigraphy, olistoliths, and the Lower Cretaceous pebbles lead to new ideas on Barremian to Santonian palaeogeography of the central part of the Northern Calcareous Alps. It is likely that the Urgonian ridge of the Calcareous Alps (Barremian to Aptian) was located on the southern part of the Bajuvarian tectonic unit and/or on the northern part of the Tirolian unit. Due to tectonic contractions of the Northern Calcareous Alps from Barremian to Priabonian times the Urgonian ridge gradually moved northward. During this period Urgonian pebbles were produced repeatedly (dynamic model). Therefore, the static model which assumes a position of the Urgonian ridge north of the Thiersee Basin (Hagn 1982 b), and therefore competes with the dynamic model, is rejected.The evidence of uninterrupted sedimentation on the Lechtal nappe, especially across the Turonian/Coniacian boundary, speaks against a Pregosavian/Mediterranean folding phase.The tectonic phase theory ofStille applied to the Cretaceous of the Northern Calcareous Alps should therefore be rejected. Tectonic events are thought to be long ranging events with ongoing sedimentation. These events took place predominantly below sealevel.The phase theory should be checked in other mountains and for other geological periods. The phase theory had the effect of inhibiting investigations into stratigraphy, palaeogeography, and palaeotectonics, and its abandonment will stimulate further geological research.

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Résumé Les relations du « Cénomanien » des Alpes calcaires du Nord avec le Gosau concerne la stratigraphie et la paléogéographie. L'ancien « Cénomanien » est rapporté aujourd'hui aux Couches de Branderfleck (Gaupp 1980, 1982). De nouvelles recherches basées sur les foraminifères lui donnent un âge allant du Cénomanien inférieur au Campanien inférieur. A l'aide de cinq séquences des Alpes calcaires bavaroises du Nord, on peut décrire brièvement l'évolution lithologique et la biostratigraphie du « Cénomanien ». - Le « Cénomanien » et le Gosau se recouvrent stratigraphiquement. Une lacune du Turonien supérieur qui serait l'expression de la phase de plissement prégosau/méditerranéenne n'existe pas.Des olistholites en eau peu profonde dans une sédimentation olithosthromique proviennent d'une région de haut-fonds situés plus au Sud. Le caractère des olistholithes est décrit et figuré en partie. L'existence du Haut-fond d'Oberaudorf (Weidlich 1982 b) est affirmée pour le Cénomanien-Santonien. A partir du Coniacien il a séparé les Couches de Branderfleck dans le Nord des sédiments de même âge de Gosau dans le Sud. - Le Gosau basai de la vallée inférieure de l'Inn a été étudié en particulier au Florianiberg près d'Oberaudorf. Trois types de galets du Crétacé inférieur, notamment à facies urgonien, sont à remarquer; ils sont à mettre stratigraphiquement dans l'Aptien.Ces trois aspects, la stratigraphie des Couches de Branderfleck, les olistholithes à facies d'eau peu profonde provenant du Haut-fond d'Oberaudorf et les galets urgoniens du Crétacé inférieur du Gosau basai, ont conduit à des idées nouvelles sur l'évolution paléogéographique de la partie moyenne des Alpes calcaires du Nord depuis le Barrémien jusqu'au Santonien. Il est très probable que le haut-fond urgonien (Barrémien — Aptien) s'est installé sur le Bajuvaricum méridional et/ou sur le Tyrolicum septentrional, et qu'il s'est déplacé peu à peu vers le Nord entre le Barrémien et le Priabonien à cause du resserrement tectonique. Il en a fourni constamment des galets urgoniens (modèle dynamique).La démonstration d'une sédimentation sans lacune dans la Nappe de la Lechtal, en particulier au-dessus de la limite Turonien — Coniacien, anihile ce qui fut jusqu'à présent le plus fort argument en faveur d'une phase prégosau/méditerranéenne. En ce qui concerne la critique de la théorie des phases, le déroulement des phénomènes tectoniques dans les Alpes calcaires au Crétacé sous la forme des phases de plissement de Stille, est abandonnée. Il s'agit beaucoup plus de processus continus de longue durée qui se sont principalement déroulés sous la mer.

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Nach einem während der 73. Jahrestagung der Geologischen Vereinigung in Berchtesgaden 1983 gehaltenen Vortrag.     

Copper- and iron-induced injuries in roots and rhizomes of reed (Phragmites australis)

About 1 mg/g dw Cu²⁺ and 8 mg/g dw Fe²⁺ were found in roots of reed plants when fed with heavy metal concentrations of 100 μM Cu²⁺ and 10 mM Fe²⁺ under hypoxia. Roots seemed to act as a kind of filter since the amounts in rhizomes were only 0.06 mg Cu²⁺/g dw and 2 mg Fe²⁺/g dw. Increased contents of both ions reduced posthypoxic respiration capacity by 40–50% and also the sum of adenylates (ATP, ADP, AMP) by the same order of magnitude, although energy charge values remained above 0.85 in Cu²⁺ and 0.79 in Fe²⁺ treatments. Energy metabolism of rhizomes was not affected. Copper and iron contents of roots as well as of rhizomes were high enough to induce oxidative stress when roots were fed with 40 μM Cu²⁺ and 1 mM Fe²⁺, respectively.From our results we conclude that increased, but environmentally attainable, amounts of copper and reduced iron ions disturb root energy metabolism, and therefore root functioning and development. Latent injuries, based on oxidative stress, may be harmful for roots and rhizomes under long term exposure.     

Beziehungen zwischen überlagerten tektonischen Gefügen und Deckenbewegung in den Apuaner Alpen (Nord-Toskana)

Zusammenfassung Die tektonischen Einheiten der Apuaner Alpen zeigen sowohl makroskopische als auch mesoskopische axiale Gefüge mit NW-SE-Orientierung, die der apenninischen Richtung entsprechen. In den ältesten Gesteinen des autochthonen Kerns überlagert diese Richtung Relikte eines früheren linearen Systems mit bevorzugtem NE-SW-Streichen. Dieses ältere System ist auf Phyllitserien beschränkt, welche in Marmorlagen paläozoische Faunen führen (VAI 1972). Sein Entstehungsalter muß demnach präalpidisch sein.Während der Hauptorogenese des Nordapennins erfolgte die stärkste Einengung und der tektonische Transport in SW-NE-Richtung. Dabei wurde die Zone von Massa von SW her auf den internen Teil des Autochthons aufgeschoben und gleichzeitig in ihr ein lineares System mit apenninischer Streichrichtung erzeugt. Das präalpidische Axial-System wurde um die apenninische Richtung rotiert und es entstanden Lineare mit steilerem Einfallen und einer charakteristischen Verteilung auf einem steilen Teilgürtel im Gefügediagramm. Die Platznahme der parautochthonen Schuppen (Campo Cecina, Isola Santa und Stazzema) erfolgte zur gleichen Zeit. Ihr Herkunftsgebiet kann die Zone von Massa gewesen sein.Die Schieferungsflächen des Autochthons wurden, entsprechend der stress-Verteilung, ursprünglich mit einer SW-Vergenz angelegt. Im Verlauf der Orogenese rotierten sie, parallel zu B, in eine steilere Lage. Schließlich entstanden NE-vergente Foliationen mit tautozonaler Anordnung zu B, die offenbar durch die Überschiebung der Toskanischen Decke nach NE erzeugt wurden. Die schwache Faltung und die (Ton-)Schieferung in den inkompetenten Horizonten dieser Decke zeigen dieselbe stress-Verteilung.

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In macroscopic and mesoscopic scale the entire Apuane Alps (allochthonous and autochthonous parts) show an axial pattern with NW-SE orientation which is conform to the Apenninic direction. In the oldest layers of the center of the autochthonous core, this direction superimposes remnants of an older linear system with a preferred NE-SW direction. This system is limited to schists which contain palaeozoic layers (VAI 1972). Its age, therefore, must be pre-Alpidic.During the orogenesis of the Apennine mountain chain the direction of the main pressure was SW-NE. This caused an upthrusting of the Massa Zone on the autochthonous part with movements in NE direction. The Apennine direction of fold axes was then established in the Massa Zone. The pre-Alpidic system of linears was rotated around the Apennine direction and linears with a steeper plunge and a characteristic steep girdle distribution originated. The emplacement of the parautochthonous schuppen zones of Campo Cecina, Isola Santa and Stazzema took place in the same time; the Massa Zone might even be the origin of these thrust slices.The schistosity planes in the autochthonous part generated with a primary SW vergence (sf₁-planes parallel to B-axes which also show a NW orientation) according to the distribution of stress. In the course of orogenesis the schistosity planes rotated into steeper positions, still parallel to B. Finally, probably together with the movement of the Tuscan nappe towards the NE, the foliation systems tautozonal to B with vergences into NE direction resulted which now predominate. The weak folding and the slaty cleavage system in the Tuscan nappe reproduces the same pattern of stress distribution.it]Riassunto In scala macro e mesoscopica tutte le parti alloctone (falda toscana), parautoctone (zona di Massa, zone a scaglie di Stazzema, Isola Santa e Campo Cecina, unità delle Panie) e autoctone (autoctono Apuano) mostrano una distribuzione assiale orientata in direzione NW-SE, che corrisponde alla direzione generale dell'Appennino settentrionale. Nelle formazioni più antiche (Paleozoico) del nucleo autoctono, questa direzione è sovrapposta a relitti di un sistema precedente con direzione predominante NE-SW. Questo sistema si riconosce su filladi quarzifere e scisti sericitico-cloritici, che contengono una fauna paleozoica in dolomie e marmi intercalati (Vai 1972); la sua età quindi deve considerarsi prealpidica.Durante l'orogenesi principale dell'Appennino settentrionale la pressione maggiore, dovuta al trasporto tettonico, si manifestava in direzione SW-NE. Con questo movimento si verifica un accavallamento verso NE della zona di Massa sulla parte interna dell'autoctono. Contemporaneamente in quest'unità parautoctona si originava un sistema di lineazioni in direzione appenninica. Il sistema assiale prealpidico è stato poi rotato in conseguenza della nuova tettogenesi appenninica. Con questa rotazione si generavano lineazioni con un'inclinazione maggiore ed una distribuzione caratteristica a cintura sul reticolo diSchmidt. Contemporaneamente le zone parautoctone a scaglie di Stazzema, Isola Santa e Campo Cecina sono state spostate sul nucleo autoctono. La loro zona di origine potrebbe essere stata la stessa dell'unità parautoctona di Massa.I piani di scistosità dell'autoctono si formavano secondo la distribuzione dello stress — dapprima con una vergenza verso SW (sf₁-piani paralleli all'asse B delle pieghe con direzione NW-SE). Durante l'orogenesi questi piani ruotavano — sempre paralleli a B — in una posizione a maggiore inclinazione e finalmente originavano foliazioni (sf₂) con una vergenza verso NE, che mostrano una distribuzione tautozonale con B. Queste foliazioni che probabilmente si sono formate durante il movimento della falda toscana verso NE ora predominano nell'assetto tettonico.Il debole piegamento e la scistosità di tipo slaty cleavage negli orizzonti incompetenti della falda toscana mostrano la stessa distribuzione di stress in un piano tettonico superiore a quello dell'autoctono e parautoctono.

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Résumé Les unités tectoniques des Alpes Apuanes montrent une orientation axiale correspondant à la direction apennine. Cette direction interfère à la base du socle autochtone avec un système linéaire, d'orientation préférentielle NE-SW. Ce système plus ancien est limité aux séries de phyllites contenant des faunes paléozoiques (VAI 1972). En conséquence, l'âge de ce système doit être pré-alpin.Pendant l'orogénèse principale de l'Apennin septentrional, le retrécissement le plus prononcé et le transport tectonique se produisicent dans la direction SW-NE. Ainsi, la zone de Massa fut superposée, venant du SW, à la partie interne de l'autochtone et affectée simultanément par un système linéaire apennin. Ensuite, le système axial pré-alpin a subi une rotation autour des axes apennins, d'où résultèrent des systèmes linéaires à fort plongement et une distribution caractéristique des axes plus raides. La mise en place des écailles parautochthones, dont l'origine pourrait être la zone de Massa, se réalisa en même temps.D'abord les surfaces de schistosité dans l'autochtone ont été déversées vers le SW, à cause de la distribution tensionelle. Au cours de l'orogénèse, elles ont subi une rotation, parallèlement à B, dans une position à plongement plus fort. Finalement résultèrent des foliations déversées vers le NE, qui ont été formées par le transport vers le NE de la nappe toscane.Le faible plissement et le clivage dans cette nappe montrent la même distribution de tension.

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Small-scale trench in the north polar region of Mars: Evolution of surface frost and ground ice concentration

In this paper we attempt to answer the question, how formation of a small-scale trench in the martian regolith affects local distribution of the subsurface ice. We are especially interested in the consequences of digging a trench to search for buried ice, as has been done during the Phoenix Mars Lander mission. However, the results may be also applicable for natural troughs, or cracks. We present results of simulations of diurnal exchange of water between the regolith and the atmosphere. Our model includes the heat and vapor migration in the regolith surrounding the trench, as well as formation of diurnal frost. We take into account scattering of light in the atmosphere and on the trench facets, as well as changes of atmospheric humidity on diurnal and seasonal time scales. Our calculations show, that the measurements of ice content in a sample obtained within one, or two days from the beginning of digging should not be affected. However, on somewhat longer time scale at the south facing site of the trench the regolith can be significantly depleted from ice. This effect should be taken into account if the excavation and taking samples from different depths will be performed in stages separated in time by a month, or more.     

Analytical linear perturbation theory for highly eccentric satellite orbits

Kaula's satellite linear perturbation theory has been extended for the case of highly eccentric orbits by using elliptic function expansions.On leave from Institute of Applied Astronomy, St.-Petersburg