Area and volume computation of longitude–latitude grids and three‐dimensional meshes

Longitude–latitude grids are commonly used for surface analyses and data storage in GIS. For volumetric analyses, three‐dimensional meshes perpendicularly raised above or below the gridded surface are applied. Since grids and meshes are defined with geographic coordinates, they are not equal area or volume due to convergence of the meridians and radii. This article compiles and presents known geodetic considerations and relevant formulae needed for longitude–latitude grid and mesh analyses in GIS. The effect of neglecting these considerations is demonstrated on area and volume calculations of ecological marine units.     

The Proterozoic evolution of northern Siberian Craton margin: a comparison of U–Pb–Hf signatures from sedimentary units of the Taimyr orogenic belt and the Siberian platform

Identifying the cratonic affinity of Neoproterozoic crust that surrounds the northern margin of the Siberian Craton (SC) is critical for determining its tectonic evolution and placing the Craton in Neoproterozoic supercontinental reconstructions. Integration of new U–Pb–Hf detrital zircon data with regional geological constraints indicates that distinct Neoproterozoic arc-related magmatic belts can be identified within the Taimyr orogen. Sedimentary rocks derived from 970 to 800 Ma arc-related suites reveal abundant Archean and Paleoproterozoic detritus, characteristic of the SC. The 720–600 Ma arc-related zircon population from the younger Cambrian sedimentary rocks is also complemented by an exotic juvenile Mesoproterozoic zircon population and erosional products of older arc-related suites. Nonetheless, numerous evidences imply that both arcs broadly reworked Siberian basement components. We suggest that the early Neoproterozoic (ca. 970–800 Ma) arc system of the Taimyr orogen evolved on the active margin of the SC and probably extended along the periphery of Rodinia into Valhalla orogen of NE Laurentia. We also suggest the late Neoproterozoic (750–550 Ma) arc system could have been part of the Timanian orogen, which linked Siberia and Baltica at the Precambrian/Phanerozoic transition.     

Variation in DOC and trace metal concentration along the heavily urbanized basin in Kathmandu Valley,Nepal

Water samples were analyzed for DOC and trace metals from Bagmati River within Kathmandu valley, Nepal, to understand the variation trends of DOC and trace metals and their relationship along the drainage network. The variability in organic matter and wastewater input within the Bagmati drainage basin appeared to control DOC and most of the trace metal concentration. The large input of organic matter and wastewater creates anoxic condition by consuming dissolved oxygen and releasing higher concentrations of DOC, trace elements such as nickel, arsenic, barium, cadmium, and copper with downstream distance. Concentrations of DOC and trace metals like barium and zinc showed strong relationships with human population density and suggest that human activities have strong control on these parameters along the drainage network. The DOC and most of the trace metal concentration increased with downstream distance and appeared to be directly associated with human activities. The variation trends of most of the trace metals appeared to be the same; however, concentration varied widely. Inputs of organic matter and wastewater due to human activities appeared directly to be associated for the variation of DOC and trace metals along the Bagmati drainage network within Kathmandu valley.     

Scales of nutrient-limited phytoplankton productivity in Chesapeake Bay

The scales on which phytoplankton biomass vary in response to variable nutrient inputs depend on the nutrient status of the plankton community and on the capacity of consumers to respond to increases in phytoplankton productivity. Overenrichment and associated declines in water quality occur when phytoplankton growth rate becomes nutrient-saturated, the production and consumption of phytoplankton biomass become uncoupled in time and space, and phytoplankton biomass becomes high and varies on scales longer than phytoplankton generation times. In Chesapeake Bay, phytoplankton growth rates appear to be limited by dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) during spring when biomass reaches its annual maximum and by dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) during summer when phytoplankton growth rates are highest. However, despite high inputs of DIN and dissolved silicate (DSi) relative to DIP (molar ratios of N∶P and Si∶P>100), seasonal accumulations of phytoplankton biomass within the salt-intruded-reach of the bay appear to be limited by riverine DIN supply while the magnitude of the spring diatom bloom is governed by DSi supply. Seasonal imbalances between biomass production and consumption lead to massive accumulations of phytoplankton biomass (often>1,000 mg Chl-a m^?2) during spring, to spring-summer oxygen depletion (summer bottom water <20% saturation), and to exceptionally high levels of annual phytoplankton production (>400 g m^?2 yr^?1). Nitrogen-dependent seasonal accumulations of phytoplankton biomass and annual production occur as a consequence of differences in the rates and pathways of nitrogen and phosphorus cycling within the bay and underscore the importance of controlling nitrogen inputs to the mesohaline and lower reaches of the bay.     

Geochemistry of the Rare Earth Elements in Natural Terrestrial Waters：A Review of What Is Currently Knows

The range of observed chemical compositions of natural terrestrial waters varies greatly especially when compared to the essentially constant global composition of the oceans.The concentrations of the REEs in natural terrestrial waters also exhibit more variation than what was reported in seawater,In terrestrial waters ,pH values span the range from acid up to alkaline,In addition,terrestrial waters can range from very dilute waters through to highly concentrated brines.The REE concentrations and their behavior in natural terrestrial waters reflect these compositional ranges,Chemical weathering of rocks represents the source of the REEs to natural terrestrial waters and ,consequently,the REE signature of rocks can impart their REE signature to associated waters,In addition,Because of the typical low solubilities of the REEs both surface and solution complexation can be important in fractionating REEs in aqueous solution.Both of these processes are important in all natural terrestrial waters,however,their relative importance varies as a function of the overall solution composition,In alkaline waters,for example,Solution complexation of the REEs with carbonate ions appears to control their aqueous distributions whereas in acid waters,the REE signature of the labile fraction of the REEs is readily leached from the rocks.In circumneutral pH waters,both processes appear to be important and their relative significance has not yet been determined.     

Geochemistry of Tertiary tholeiites and picrites from Qeqertarssuaq (Disko Island) and Nuussuaq, West Greenland with implications for the mineral potential of comagmatic intrusions

Tertiary continental flood basalts on Qeqertarssuaq and Nuussuaq in West Greenland contain ～3?km of picrites and variably contaminated tholeiites. The picrites are in the Naujánguit member of the Vaïgat Formation and they have 7–29?wt% MgO, La/Sm?=?0.9–2.1, and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd?=?0.51263–0.51307. They appear to have crystallised from high-Mg parental magmas (14.4–16.4?wt% MgO) with isotope and trace element ratios similar to recent Icelandic picrites. Discrete horizons of tholeiites, including the Asûk and?Kûgánguaq, have elevated SiO₂ (50–58 wt%), La/Sm?=?3–7, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr?=?0.70550–0.71224, and low ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd?=?0.51234–0.51174. These lavas have low Cu and Ni abundances (typically 10–50?ppm Ni or Cu), and in the case of the Asûk on Qeqertarssuaq, they contain droplets of native iron. The low Cu and Ni contents are attributed to scavenging by magmatic sulphides formed in response to crustal contamination of picritic magmas. Two contamination trends are recognised, one to a sediment end-member with high Th/Nb and Archaean model Nd ages, and the other to a meta-igneous component with high La/Sm, low Th/Nb and Rb/Nb, and Proterozoic source ages. Overall, ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb varies from 16.47–21.68. Both contamination trends are associated with low Cu and Ni, and high SiO₂, and it is argued that the magmatic sulphides were triggered by the increases in silica, rather than simply by the introduction of additional crustal-derived sulphur. Geochemically, the Asûk and Kûgánguaq rocks resemble the most contaminated Nadezhdinsky lavas of the Siberian Trap, which are widely regarded as the source of the Ni and Cu mineralisation in the giant Noril'sk deposits. Mass balance considerations indicate that the parental liquids to the contaminated magmas contained sufficient Ni, Cu, S and platinum group elements to form substantial magmatic sulphide deposits. However, unlike the lavas at Noril'sk, the contaminated (low Cu and Ni) West Greenland basalts are in isolated units with no evidence for a gradual recovery in Ni and Cu abundances with height in the lava column. Comparison with Noril'sk suggests that although significant quantities of metals were scavenged by sulphides in West Greenland, the metal contents of the sulphides may not have been upgraded by continued interaction with subsequent magma batches.     

Structural, chemical, and isotopic microanalytical investigations of graphite from supernovae

We report the results of coordinated ion microprobe and transmission electron microscope (TEM) studies of presolar graphites from the KE3 separate (1.65-1.72 g/cm³) of the Murchison CM2 meteorite. Isotopic analysis of individual graphites (1-12 μm) with the ion microprobe shows many to have large ¹⁸O excesses combined with large silicon isotopic anomalies, indicative of a supernova (SN) origin. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of ultramicrotome slices of these SN graphites revealed a high abundance (25-2400 ppm) of internal titanium carbides (TiCs), with a single graphite in some cases containing hundreds of TiCs. Isotopic compositions of individual TiCs by nanoscale resolution secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) confirmed their presolar origin. In addition to TiCs, composite TiC/Fe grains (TiCs with attached iron-nickel subgrains) and solitary kamacite internal grains were found. In the composite grains, the attached iron phase (kamacite [0-24 at. % Ni] or taenite [up to 60 at. % Ni]) was epitaxially grown onto one or more TiC faces. In contrast to the denser Murchison KFC1 graphites, no Zr-Ti-Mo carbides were observed. The average TiC diameters were quite variable among the SN graphites, from 30 to 232 nm, and were generally independent of the host graphite size. TiC grain morphologies ranged from euhedral to anhedral, with the grain surfaces exhibiting variable degrees of corrosion, and sometimes partially amorphous rims (3 to 15 nm thick). Partially amorphous rims of similar thickness were also observed on some solitary kamacite grains. We speculate that the rims on the internal grains are most plausibly the result of atom bombardment caused by drift of grains with respect to the ambient gas, requiring relative outflow speeds ∼100 km/s (i.e., a few percent of the SN mass outflow speed).Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDXS) of TiCs revealed significant V in solid solution, with an average V/Ti ratio over all TiCs of ∼83% of the solar value of 0.122. Significant variations about the mean V/Ti ratio were also seen among TiCs in the same graphite, likely indicating chemical equilibration with the surrounding gas over a range of temperatures. In general, the diversity in internal TiC properties suggests that TiCs formed first and had substantially diverse histories before incorporation into the graphite, implying some degree of turbulent mixing in the SN outflows.In most graphites, there is a decrease in the number density of TiCs as a function of increasing radial dis- tance, caused by either preferential depletion of TiCs from the gas or an acceleration of graphite growth with decreasing ambient temperature. In several graphites, TiCs showed a trend of larger V/Ti ratios with increasing distance from the graphite center, an indication of progressive equilibration with the surrounding gas before they were sequestered in the graphites. In all but one graphite, no trend was seen in the TiC size vs. distance from the graphite center, implying that appreciable TiC growth had effectively stopped before the graphites formed, or else that graphite growth was rapid compared to TiC growth. Taken together, the chemical variations among internal grains as well as the presence of partially amorphous rims and epitaxial Fe phases on some TiCs clearly indicate that the phase condensation sequence was TiC, followed by the iron phases (only found in some graphites) and finally graphite. Since graphite typically condenses at a higher temperature than iron at low pressures (<10⁻³ bars) in a gas with C > O and otherwise solar composition, the observed condensation sequence implies a relative iron enrichment in the gas or greater supersaturation of graphite relative to iron.The TEM observations allow inferences to be made about the physical conditions in the gas from which the grains condensed. Given the TiC sizes and abundances, the gas was evidently quite dusty. From the observed TiC size range of ∼20 nm to ∼500 nm (assuming ∼1 yr growth time and T ∼ 1800°K), we infer minimum Ti number densities in the gas to be ∼7 × 10⁴ to ∼2 × 10⁶ atoms/cc, respectively. Although the gas composition is clearly not solar, for scale, these number densities would correspond to a pressure range of ∼0.2 μbar to ∼5.0 μbar in a gas of solar composition. They also correspond to minimum TiC grain number densities of ∼3 × 10⁻⁴ to ∼0.2 grains/cc, assuming complete condensation of Ti in TiC. We estimate the maximum ratio of mean TiC grain separation distance in the gas to grain diameter from the Ti number densities as ∼3 × 10⁵ to ∼1 × 10⁶.     

Dissolution kinetics of calcite at 50-70 °C: An atomic force microscopic study under near-equilibrium conditions

Direct measurements of calcite faces were performed using in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) to reveal the dissolution processes as a function of solution saturation state and temperature. Time-sequential AFM images demonstrated that step velocities at constant temperature increased with increasing undersaturation. The anisotropy of obtuse and acute step velocities appeared to become more significant as solutions approached equilibrium and temperature increased. At saturation state Ω > 0.02, a curvilinear boundary was formed at the intersection of two acute steps and the initially rhombohedral etch pit exhibited a nearly triangular shape. This suggests that the and steps may not belong to the calcite-aqueous solution equilibrium system. Further increase in the saturation state (Ω ? 0.3) led to a lack of etch pit formation and dissolution primarily occurred at existing steps, in accordance with Teng (2004). Analysis of step kinetics at different temperatures yielded activation energies of 25 ± 6 kJ/mol and 14 ± 13 kJ/mol for obtuse and acute steps, respectively. The inconsistencies in etch pit morphology, step anisotropy, and step activation energies from the present study with those of studies far-from-equilibrium can be explained by increased influence of the backward reaction, or growth, near-equilibrium. We propose that the backward reaction occurs preferentially at the acute-acute kink sites. The kinetics and effective activation energies of near-equilibrium calcite dissolution presented in this work provide accurate experimental data under likely CO₂ sequestration conditions, and thus are crucial to the development of robust geochemical models that predict the long-term performance of mineral-trapped CO₂.     

Field spectroscopy and radiative transfer modelling to assess impacts of petroleum pollution on biophysical and biochemical parameters of the Amazon rainforest

Biophysical and biochemical plant foliage parameters play a key role in assessing vegetation health. Those plant parameters determine the spectral reflectance and transmittance properties of vegetation; therefore, hyperspectral remote sensing, particularly imaging spectroscopy, can provide estimates of leaf and canopy chemical properties. Based on the relationship between spectral response and biochemical/biophysical properties of the leaves and canopies, the PROSPECT radiative transfer model simulates the interaction of light with leaves. In this study, more than 1100 leaf samples from the Amazon forest of Ecuador were collected at several study sites, some of which are affected by petroleum pollution, and across the vertical profile of the forest. For every sample, field spectroscopy at leaf level was conducted with a spectroradiometer. The goal of this study was to assess leaf optical properties of polluted and unpolluted rainforest canopies across the vertical profile and identify vegetation stress expressed in changes of biophysical and biochemical properties of vegetation. An ANOVA followed by Holme’s multiple comparisons of means and a principal component analysis showed that photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll and carotenoids have significantly lower levels across the vertical profile of the forest, particularly in sites affected by petroleum pollution. On the other hand, foliar water content showed significantly higher levels in the polluted site. Those findings are symptoms of vegetation stress caused by reduced photosynthetic activity and consequently decreased transpiration and water-use efficiency of the plants. Cross-comparison between SPAD-502 chlorophyll content meter index and chlorophyll content showed strong positive correlation coefficients (r = 0.71 and r ² = 0.51) which suggests that using the SPAD-502 chlorophyll index itself is sensitive enough to detect vegetation stress in a multispecies tropical forest. Therefore, the SPAD-502 can be used to assess chlorophyll content of vegetation across polluted and non-polluted sites at different canopy layers. The results presented in this paper contribute to the very limited literature on field spectroscopy and radiative transfer models applied to the vertical profile of the Amazon forest.