Full-scale dynamic testing of response-controlled buildings and their components:concepts,methods,and findings

A series of shake-table tests was conducted by inserting and replacing 4 different types of dampers,or by removing them in a full-scale 5-story steel frame building. The objective is to validate response-control technologies that are increasingly adopted for major Japanese buildings without being attested to-date by a major earthquake. Test results are briefly described,and good performance of the dampers and frame demonstrated. The concepts of the full-scale building tests and various contributions are discussed. The difficulty associated with full-scale dynamic testing is explained.     

Evaluation of the damping modification factor for structures subjected to near-fault ground motions

The damping modification factor (DMF) has been extensively used in earthquake engineering to describe the variation of structural responses due to varied damping ratios. It is known that DMFs are dependent not only on structural dynamic properties but also on characteristics of ground motions. DMFs regulated in current seismic codes are generally developed based on far-fault ground motions and are inappropriately used in structural design where pulse-like near-fault ground motions are involved. In this paper, statistical investigation of the DMF is performed based on 50 carefully selected pulse-like near-fault ground motions. It is observed that DMFs for pulse-like ground motions exhibit significant dependence on the pulse period T _p in a specific period range. If the period of the structure in response is close to the pulse period, the DMF attains the same level as that derived from far-fault ground motions; as the period of the structure is considerably larger or smaller than the pulse period T _p , the response reduction effect by the increased damping ratio is generally small, except for large earthquakes with long pulse periods, which exhibit significant reduction of response for structures with periods smaller than T _p . Based on the statistical results of DMFs, the empirical formulas for estimating DMFs for displacement, velocity and acceleration spectra are proposed, the effect of structural period, pulse period and damping ratio are considered in the formulas, and the formulas are designed to satisfy the specific reliability requirement in the period range of 0.1 < T/T _p  < 1, which is of engineering interest.     

Diel tuning of photosynthetic systems in ice algae at Saroma-ko Lagoon, Hokkaido, Japan

Ice algae are the major primary producers in seasonally ice-covered oceans during the cold season. Diurnal change in solar radiation is inevitable for ice algae, even beneath seasonal sea ice in lower-latitude regions. In this work, we focused on the photosynthetic response of ice algae under diurnally changing irradiance in Saroma-ko Lagoon, Japan. Photosynthetic properties were assessed by pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) fluorometry. The species composition remained almost the same throughout the investigation. The maximum electron transport rate (rETR_max), which indicates the capacity of photosynthetic electron transport, increased from sunrise until around noon and decreased toward sunset, with no sign of the afternoon depression commonly observed in other photosynthetic organisms. The level of non-photochemical quenching, which indicates photoprotection activity by dissipating excess light energy via thermal processes, changed with diurnal variations in irradiance. The pigment composition appeared constant, except for xanthophyll cycle pigments, which changed irrespective of irradiance. These results indicate that ice algae tune their photosynthetic system harmonically to achieve efficient photosynthesis under diurnally changing irradiance, while avoiding damage to photosystems. This regulation system may be essential for productive photosynthesis in ice algae.     

Comparison of carbon cycle between the western Pacific subarctic and subtropical time-series stations: highlights of the K2S1 project

A comparative study of ecosystems and biogeochemistry at time-series stations in the subarctic gyre (K2) and subtropical region (S1) of the western North Pacific Ocean (K2S1 project) was conducted between 2010 and 2013 to collect essential data about the ecosystem and biological pump in each area and to provide a baseline of information for predicting changes in biologically mediated material cycles in the future. From seasonal chemical and biological observations, general oceanographic settings were verified and annual carbon budgets at both stations were determined. Annual mean of phytoplankton biomass and primary productivity at the oligotrophic station S1 were comparable to that at the eutrophic station K2. Based on chemical/physical observations and numerical simulations, the likely “missing nutrient source” was suggested to include regeneration, meso-scale eddy driven upwelling, meteorological events, and eolian inputs in addition to winter vertical mixing. Time-series observation of carbonate chemistry revealed that ocean acidification (OA) was ongoing at both stations, and that the rate of OA was faster at S1 than at K2 although OA at K2 is more critical for calcifying organisms.     

Interrelationships Between Topography,Quaternary Vertical Displacement,Active Faults and Short-term Horizontal Crustal Strain in Honshu,Japan

Regional and local characteristics of active fault patterns and elevation variation throughout Honshu, Japan are characterized in terms of their fractal dimensions; this allows variation in these complex variables to be compared directly to the scalar properties of net Quaternary vertical displacement, elevation and 10- and 110-year horizontal strains. The comparisons reveal that, throughout Honshu as a whole, there is significant correlation (r=0.75) between Quaternary vertical displacement, elevation, and its fractal properties. There is poor correlation, however, of elevation and its fractal properties to horizontal crustal strain, and also between Quaternary vertical displacement and horizontal crustal strain. A slight negative correlation is observed between the fractal properties of the active fault system and horizontal crustal strain measured over 10- and 110-year time periods (–0.43 and –0.26, respectively). The correlation between the 10-year (1985–1994) and 110-year (1883–1994) area strains, 0.48, reveals the occurrence of considerable change in the distribution of regional strain over these short time frames. Local computations of the correlation between data sets made for overlapping 160 km length windows of data spaced every 20 km along analysis lines reveal internal fluctuations in the correlation between variables. The local correlation between Quaternary vertical displacement and elevation is highest through central Japan and the Kinki Triangle. There is weak negative correlation between area strain and fractal dimensions of the active fault network. The local correlation between the fractal dimensions of active faults and horizontal area strain over the recent 10-year time period averages about –0.6 through central Japan in an area that extends across the Kinki Triangle through the northern part of central Honshu and northeast across the Itoigawa Shizuoka Tectonic Line. In general, regions of greatest complexity in the active fault network are associated with persistent negative area or compressional strain. Sparsely faulted areas in general coincide with areas of positive or roughly zero area strain. The presence of negative correlation through central Japan and the Kinki Triangle area in the recent 10-year period results from a decrease of area strain within an increasingly complex active fault system that reaches maximum negative values concentrated in the Kinki Triangle during the 1985–1994 time period.     

Damping identification of a full‐scale passively controlled five‐story steel building structure

A series of large‐scale dynamic tests was conducted on a passively controlled five‐story steel building on the E‐Defense shaking table facility in Japan to accumulate knowledge of realistic seismic behavior of passively controlled structures. The specimen was tested by repeatedly inserting and replacing each of four damper types, that is, the buckling restrained braces, viscous dampers, oil dampers, and viscoelastic dampers. Finally, the bare steel moment frame was tested after removing all dampers. A variety of excitations was applied to the specimen, including white noise, various levels of seismic motion, and shaker excitation. System identification was implemented to extract dynamic properties of the specimen from the recorded floor acceleration data. Damping characteristics of the specimen were identified. In addition, simplified estimations of the supplemental damping ratios provided by added dampers were presented to provide insight into understanding the damping characteristics of the specimen. It is shown that damping ratios for the specimen equipped with velocity‐dependent dampers decreased obviously with the increasing order of modes, exhibiting frequency dependency. Damping ratios for the specimen equipped with oil and viscoelastic dampers remained constant regardless of vibration amplitudes, whereas those for the specimen equipped with viscous dampers increased obviously with an increase in vibration amplitudes because of the viscosity nonlinearity of the dampers. In very small‐amplitude vibrations, viscous and oil dampers provided much lower supplemental damping than the standard, whereas viscoelastic dampers could be very efficient. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hydraulic model tests for evaluating sediment control function with a grid-type Sabo dam in mountainous torrents

There are two kinds of Sabo dams in order to control sediment transport by debris flow and flash floods in mountainous area, which are closed and open-type＇s dams. In Japan, open-type＇s Sabo dams are constructed taking into account the continuity of sediment routing from upstream to downstream reach in a basin. A plan to construct a 20 m high grid-type Sabo dam which can capture a sediment volume of 400,000 m3 is proposed in the Amahata river basin in Japan. Hydraulic model tests are conducted to decide on the section for a dam （Section A, B） and the grid size such as clearance of vertical/horizontal bars for evaluating the plan. Several runs of flume tests are conducted and the sediment control function of the Sabo darn is discussed using several experimental data such as dimensionless sediment runoff rate from Sabo dam, temporal changes of bed profile and mean diameter and so on. It was found that sediment deposition in sediment storage area of Sabo dam was affected by curved channel, and that next the grid size of steel bars and thirdly the section of a dam was able to capture sediment in storage area of Sabo dam. Sediment was controlled well in the section B and in the grid size of 1.0×d95, and the problems related to sediment runoffafter sediment capturing in Sabo dam are pointed out.     

Distribution and photo-physiological condition of phytoplankton in the tropical and subtropical North Pacific

To better understand the vertical distribution of phytoplankton in the tropical and subtropical North Pacific, we used fast repetition rate fluorometry to investigate the photo-physiological condition of the phytoplankton assemblage in this region between February and March 2007. Along 155°E, between the equator and 24°N, the peak of fluorescence (F _m), an indication of the deep chlorophyll maximum (DCM), was deeper than the top of the nitracline and occurred at the 2.4 ± 1.3 % (mean ± SD) light depth (relative to 0 m). The photochemical efficiency (F _v/F _m) and effective absorption cross-section of photosystem II (σ_PSII) were low at the surface but increased rapidly at depths between the top of the nitracline (40–138 m) and the DCM (70–158 m), an indication that the photo-physiological condition of the phytoplankton improved below the top of the nitracline. The depth of the maximal F _v/F _m [Z(F _v/F _{m max})] was 18–32 m deeper than the DCM and corresponded to the 0.8 ± 0.2 % light depth. The values of F _v/F _m at the Z(F _v/F _{m max}) were 20 % higher than those at the DCM and averaged 0.48 ± 0.01. These results suggest that the phytoplankton assemblage beneath the DCM had a high potential photosynthetic performance capacity and was growing by using the very low ambient light in this region.     

High-temperature emplacement and liquefaction of shallow-water caldera-forming eruption products: Early Miocene Tateyamazaki Dacite in the Oga Peninsula, NE Japan

The Early Miocene Tateyamazaki Dacite infills a 3.2 km diameter caldera. It comprises poorly sorted, massive, biotite-bearing dacite pumice lapilli tuff, in which huge blocks of densely welded dacite lapilli tuff, basaltic andesite lava, and other lithologies are commonly set. Dense blocks are variably cracked and intruded by the host lapilli tuff. Sparse blocks of bedded lapilli tuff and tuff are variably disaggregated to intermingle with the host rocks or are plastically deformed into irregular shapes. Rootless tuff veins millimeters to 30 cm thick are developed within the host rocks, mainly dipping at 10–30°, and are locally branched and mutually cut to form a network. Where thicker, they are stratified and locally carry accidental fragments. Accidental lapilli up to 2 or 3 cm wide and 30 cm long are locally set in near-vertical and variably sinuous arrays. Although poorly defined they are reminiscent of fluid escape structures. The host pumice lapilli tuff, however, retains in part a thermal remnant magnetization (TRM) vector stable at temperatures above 280 °C. Blocks in the caldera fill also retain TRM but the vectors are rotated significantly from those of the host pumice lapilli tuff and the adjacent volcanic rocks. Tateyamazaki Dacite is thus likely to have been emplaced at high temperatures, and intermingled with shattered basement rocks and ambient water to be partly liquefied within the caldera immediately after or during the caldera-forming eruption.     

Dynamic response characterization and simplified analysis methods for viscoelastic dampers considering heat transfer

Viscoelastic (VE) dampers are sensitive to temperature, excitation frequency, and strain level. As they dissipate the kinetic energy from earthquake or wind-induced structural vibrations, their temperature increases from the heat generated, consequently softening their VE materials and lowering their dynamic mechanical properties. Temperature increase can be significant for long-duration loading, but can be limited by heat conduction and convection which depend on damper configuration. The writers analytically explored such effect on the six different dampers by using their previously proposed three-dimensional finite-element analysis method. Results provided better understanding of how heat is generated within the VE material, conducted and stored in different damper parts, and dispersed to the surrounding air. These results also led to characterization of both local (e.g., temperatures, properties, and strain energy density) and global (e.g., hysteresis loops, and stiffness) behavior of VE dampers, and provided a framework for a new simplified one-dimensional (1D) modeling approach for time-history analysis. This new proposed 1D method greatly improves the computation time of the previously proposed long-duration method coupling fractional time-derivatives VE constitutive rule with 1D heat transfer analysis. Unlike the previous method, it idealizes uniform shear strain and VE material property distributions for computational efficiency, but still simulating non-uniform temperature distribution along the thickness direction of the VE material. Despite the approximations, it accurately predicts VE damper global responses.