Defining a Digital Earth System

In a 1998 speech before the California Science Center in Los Angeles, then US Vice‐President Al Gore called for a global undertaking to build a multi‐faceted computing system for education and research, which he termed “Digital Earth.” The vision was that of a system providing access to what is known about the planet and its inhabitants’ activities – currently and for any time in history – via responses to queries and exploratory tools. Furthermore, it would accommodate modeling extensions for predicting future conditions. Organized efforts towards realizing that vision have diminished significantly since 2001, but progress on key requisites has been made. As the 10 year anniversary of that influential speech approaches, we re‐examine it from the perspective of a systematic software design process and find the envisioned system to be in many respects inclusive of concepts of distributed geolibraries and digital atlases. A preliminary definition for a particular digital earth system as: “a comprehensive, distributed geographic information and knowledge organization system,” is offered and discussed. We suggest that resumption of earlier design and focused research efforts can and should be undertaken, and may prove a worthwhile “Grand Challenge” for the GIScience community.     

Neue Beobachtungen zur Paläogeographie des Devon auf dem brasilianischen Block

Zusammenfassung Neuere Beobachtungen im Jatobá-Becken (Pernambuco — Brasilien), dem nördlichsten Ausläufer der Reconcavo-Zone von Bahia haben überraschenderweise dort eine Vertretung von Unterdevon und unterstem Unterkarbon ergeben. Das Cariri-Konglomerat im Liegenden der kretacischen Araripe-Serie (West-Pernambuco) muß nach neuen Beobachtungen ebenfalls ins Unterdevon eingereiht werden. Gleiches gilt für den stratigraphisch bisher in der Luft hängenden Tombador-Sandstein im zentralen Bahia, dessen Profil weitgehend dem Unterdevon-Profil von Piaui entspricht. Die Devondecke auf dem nordöstlichen Teil des brasilianischen Blockes war ursprünglich viel ausgedehnter als bisher vermutet werden konnte. Eigenartig ist die auf die weiten Entfernungen gleichförmige grobklastische Fazies auch in offensichtlich küstenferneren Bereichen, die kaum eine andere Deutung als driftglaziale Einflüsse im Unterdevon-Meer zuläßt, was früher auch schonMaack für das Unterdevon in Paraná vermutet hatte. Die aus paläomagnetischen Messungen erschlossene Lage des brasilianischen Blockes während des Devon stimmt damit gut überein.

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Recent observations in the basin of Jatobá (Pernambuco — Brasil), the extreme northern end of the Reconcavo-Zone of Bahia, resulted in the surprising discovery of Subdevonian and lowest Carboniferous. Recent studies also found out that the Cariri-conglomerat in the underlying bed of the cretaceous Araripe-series (West-Pernambuco) must also be classified in the Subdevonian, as well as the Tombador sandstone in central Bahia, whose profil resembles that of the Subdevonian of Piaui. The Devonian nappe on the north-eastern part of the Brasilian block was originally much larger than it has been assumed. The clastic facies even in regions far from the coast, is very strange. It can only be interpreted as glacial deposits in the subdevonian ocean, a suggestion which has already been made byMaack for the Subdevonian in Paraná. This agrees with the situation of the Brasilian block during the Devonian, infered from paleomagnetic measurements.

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Resumen Conforme as observações mais recentes há uma representação do Devoniano inferior e do Carbonífere mais inferior na bacia de Jatobá (Pernambuco — Brasil), a extremidade setentrional da zone de Revoncavo. O conglomerado de Cariri na lapa da série Araripe, deve ser atribuido ao Devoniano inferior conforme observações recentes. O arenito Tombador da Bahia, cujo perfil corresponde muito bem ao do Devoniano inferior de Piaui, tern a mesma posição estratigráfica. No bloco brasileiro, a capa, devoniana era originalmente muito mais extensa do que se supôs até agora. A fácies clástica, muito monótona por todas estas amplas áreas, é um fenomeno muito estranho que pode ser interpretado só pela idéia que no mar devoniano houve gelo flutuante. No Devoniano do Paraná, R.Maack pronunciou a mesma idéia. As medições paleomagnéticas indicam uma posição do bloco brasileiro durante o Devoniano, que bem corresponde a esta interpretação.

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Platform-induced clay-mineral fractionation along a northern Tethyan basin-platform transect: implications for the interpretation of Early Cretaceous climate change (Late Hauterivian-Early Aptian)

High-resolution clay-mineral analyses were performed on upper Hauterivian to lower Aptian sediments along a platform-to-basin transect through the northern Tethyan margin from the Neuchâtel area (Switzerland), to the Vocontian Trough (France) in order to investigate links between climate change, carbonate platform evolution, and fractionation patterns in clay minerals during their transport.During the Hauterivian, the northern Tethyan carbonate platform developed in a heterozoan mode, and the associated ramp-like topography facilitated the export of detrital material into the adjacent basin, where clay-mineral assemblages are dominated by smectite and kaolinite is almost absent, thereby suggesting dry-seasonal conditions. During the Late Hauterivian Balearites balearis ammonite zone, a change to a more humid climate is documented by the appearance of kaolinite, which reaches up to 30% of the clay fraction in sediments in the Vocontian Trough. This prominent change just preceded the Faraoni Oceanic Anoxic Event and the onset of the demise of the Helvetic Carbonate Platform, which lasted to the late early Barremian.From the Late Barremian onwards, the renewed growth of the northern Tethyan carbonate platform in a photozoan mode and the associated development of a marginally confined platform topography fractionated the clay-mineral assemblages exported into hemipelagic settings: kaolinite particles were preferentially retained in proximal, platform settings, due to their size and their relatively high specific weight. In the inner platform environment preserved in the Swiss Jura, an average of 32% of kaolinite in the clay fraction is observed during the latest Barremian–earliest Aptian, whereas clay-mineral assemblages of coeval sediments from deeper depositional settings are dominated by smectite and show only minor amounts of kaolinite.This signifies that besides palaeoclimate conditions, the morphology and ecology of the carbonate platform had a significant effect on the distribution and composition of clay assemblages during the Late Hauterivian–Early Aptian along the northern Tethyan margin.     

Adriatic coast as a microcosm for global genotoxic marine contamination--a long-term field study

Global changes in the marine environment and the continuing disposal of genotoxic xenobiotics are increasing the importance of environmental pollution monitoring and of biomonitoring programs. Current approaches focus on investigations at regional and local levels in an attempt to precisely define the nature and extent of any potential environmental crisis. We have initiated, for the first time, a long-term biomonitoring program focusing on the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea to contribute to a more detailed understanding of marine genotoxic effects using the mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam., collected along the eastern Adriatic coast over a period of five years (1998-2002), as a key test organism. The integrity of DNA in its gill homogenate was examined by the Fast Micromethod. The strand scission factor (SSF) values, as a measure of DNA integrity, DNA damage or incomplete repair have been used for the ranking of sampling sites with respect to significant genotoxic stress due to the influence or effects of genotoxic xenobiotics. The region of Split (Kastela Bay) proved to be the area with the heaviest load of genotoxic agents. The investigation of harmful effects in the ecosystem based on biomonitoring of genetic and other agents, not only on local levels but also on a wider scale, is considered as an important step in marine environmental management.     

北部湾东北部2000年以来高分辨率粘土矿物记录及古环境意义

北部湾东北部 GC19-28 孔260BC~1480A.D. 粘土矿物学的高分辨率（平均分辨率为15年）分析表明,该孔的粘土矿物主要由蒙脱石（50%~61%）组成,含中等含量的伊利石（13%~18%）、高岭石（13%~18%）和绿泥石（11%~16%）,在该时间序列上蒙脱石与其他3种粘土矿物变化趋势基本相反。物源区分析显示,GC19-28 孔粘土矿物中的蒙脱石主要由红河提供,伊利石、高岭石和绿泥石主要来源于珠江。该孔高岭石/蒙脱石比值可以反映华南珠江流域季风降雨变化,比值增加表明珠江流域降雨增强;反之亦然。研究结果发现,GC19-28 孔的4种粘土矿物整体表现2个阶段性变化：1）260BC~1200A.D.,4种粘土矿物的相对含量基本保持不变,高岭石/蒙脱石比值同样保持不变;2）从 1200~1480A.D.,蒙脱石相对含量逐渐降低,伊利石、高岭石和绿泥石相对含量逐渐增加,高岭石/蒙脱石比值开始增加。结合贵州董哥洞石笋、广东湖光岩、西沙东岛湖泊沉积物和西太平洋暖池区海表古温度等高分辨率地质记录,推断华南珠江流域由中世纪暖期向小冰期转换过程中,降雨逐渐增加。     

Aquifer chemistry of four high-temperature geothermal systems in Iceland

The deep water feeding wet-steam wells in four high-temperature geothermal areas in Iceland have highly variable salinity as reflected in the chlorine concentrations which vary from 20 to 19000 ppm. Using available values for equilibrium constants, the activities of 26 chemical species involving the major components of the reservoir water have been calculated and quantitative evaluations of solute/ solute, mineral/solute chemical equilibria in these geothermal systems have been made.The unflashed reservoir water is just saturated with calcite. The saline geothermal waters, which represent heated sea-water, are just saturated with anhydrite, but the dilute waters, which are of meteoric origin, are somewhat undersaturated with this mineral. The fluoride mobility is thought to be limited by an ionic exchange reaction where F^? replaces some of the OH^? in the layered silicates. The pH of the unflashed reservoir water is governed by ionic exchange equilibrium in which all the major cations participitate. At a given temperature it seems likely that the activity of one cation fixes the activities of all the other major cations and hydrogen ion. If this is so and we take all the other chemical equilibria which have been demonstrated to exist for granted, it turns out that the major element composition of the unflashed high-temperature geothermal waters is controlled by two independent variables only. These variables are the temperature and the supply to the water of the incompatible element chlorine, incompatible indicating that this element is not incorporated in the geothermal minerals.     

Seltene Mineralparagenesen in den Kalksteineinsehlüssen der Lava des Ettringer Bellerberges bei Mayen (Eifel)

Zusammenfassung Sechs metamorph veränderte Kalksteineinschlüsse aus verschiedenen Teilen der Lavaströme des Ettringer Bellerberges bei Mayen (Eifel) wurden optisch, chemisch und röntgenographisch untersucht. Sie setzen sich aus seltenen, z. T. erstmals in der Natur gefundenen Mineralen zusammen. Der Mineralbestand der Einschlüsse wird beschrieben. Er weicht von Probe zu Probe z. T. erheblich ab. Je nachdem in welchen Mineralen Fe und Al enthalten sind, lassen sich die Einschlüsse in 2 Gruppen einteilen: eine mit Brownmillerit, Mayenit, Larnit und eine 2. mit Wollastonit, Gehlenit, Magnetkies, Spinell.Am Aufbau aller Gesteine sind stets kristallwasserhaltige Minerale (Ettringet, Portlandit, Hydrocalumit) in z. T. ziemlich großen Mengen beteiligt. Diese Minerale kommen gelegentlich auch in Hohlräumen frei gewachsen vor.Eine völlig andere Zusammensetzung hat nur ein Teil aus dem Inneren eines Einschlusses. Er besteht nur aus Diopsid und Grossular.Soweit es die vorliegenden (noch nicht vollständigen) Untersuchungsergebnisse zulassen, werden mögliche Reaktionen, die zur Bildung dieser ungewöhnlichen Paragenese geführt haben könnten, diskutiert. Als Vergleich dienten nicht nur andere natürliche Kalkkontakte, sondern es wurden auch Erfahrungen der Zementforschung herangezogen.Die wasserfreien Minerale sind wahrscheinlich bei hohen Temperaturen und ziemlich niedrigen Drucken entstanden. Erst später; nachdem die Lava schon weitgehend abgekühlt war, können sich die kristallwasserhaltigen Minerale gebildet haben.Der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft danken wir für das Bereitstellen von Geräten.

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Six metamorphic altered limestone inclusions from different parts of the lava flows of the Ettringer Bellerberg near Mayen (Eifel, Germany) have been investigated by optical, chemical, and X-ray methods. They are composed of rare minerals, two of them have been found the first time naturally. The mineral composition of the inclusions is not uniform. They may be divided into two groups, one with brownmillerite, mayenite, larnite, and another one with wollastonite, gehlenite, pyrrhotite, spinel. A small (inner) part of one inclusion consists only of diopside and grossularite.In all rocks there are minerals containing crystallized water (ettringite, portlandite, and hydrocalumite), sometimes in large amounts. These minerals are found occasionally well developed in cavities.Possible modes of formation of this unusual paragenesis are discussed as far as it is permitted by the results of this investigation.

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Herrn Prof. Dr.Carl W. Correns zum 70. Geburtstag gewidmet.     

Dating Palaeolithic sites in southwestern Crete,Greece

Discussions of dispersals of early hominins from Africa assume that Southwest Asia and the Arabian Peninsula were the primary passageways for migrations to Eurasia. The Mediterranean is usually viewed as a barrier to early hominin movements because pre‐sapiens hominins were thought to lack the technical means or the cognitive skills to construct boats. The discovery of early Palaeolithic artefacts in an archaeological survey on the Greek island of Crete challenges this view. Here we show that Palaeolithic artefacts in the Plakias region in southwestern Crete are associated with geological contexts that can be dated to the late Middle or early Late Pleistocene. Because Crete has been separated from the mainland throughout the Pleistocene, the presence of Pleistocene age artefacts there suggests that early hominins were able to cross open water. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Origin of high Zn contents in Jurassic limestone of the Jura mountain range and the Burgundy: evidence from Zn speciation and distribution

In order to better understand the origin and enrichment mechanisms leading to elevated Zn concentrations in Jurassic limestone of the Jura mountain range (JMR) and the Burgundy (B), we investigated four locations of Bajocian age (JMR: Lausen–Schleifenberg, Gurnigel; B: Vergisson–Davayé, Lucy-le-Bois) and two locations of Oxfordian age (JMR: Dornach, Pichoux) for their Zn distribution and speciation. Measurements of the acid-extractable and bulk Zn contents showed that Zn is stratigraphically and spatially heterogeneously distributed, in association with permeable carbonate levels. Up to 3,580 and 207 mg/kg Zn was detected in Bajocian and Oxfordian limestone, respectively, with numerous limestone samples having Zn contents above 50 mg/kg. Using X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy and micro-X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, the speciation and micro-scale distribution of Zn was investigated for selected limestone samples. In Bajocian limestone sphalerite and/or Zn-substituted goethite and a minor fraction of Zn-bearing carbonates were identified. In contrast, Zn-bearing carbonates (Zn-substituted calcite and hydrozincite) were accounting for most of the total Zn in Oxfordian limestone. The micro-scale distribution of Zn for Bajocian and Oxfordian limestone was however similar with localized Zn-rich zones in the limestone cement and at the rim of oolites. The stratigraphic sporadicity and microscale heterogeneity of the Zn distribution together with the Zn speciation results point to a hydrothermal origin of Zn. Occurence of Zn-goethite is probably linked to the oxidative transformation of framboidal pyrite and hydrothermal sphalerite in contact with meteoritic waters. Difference in speciation between Bajocian limestone and Oxfordian limestone may be related to differences in rock permeability and/or to various hydrothermal events. Isotopic dating of the different mineralizations will be needed to decipher differences in Zn speciation and the precise chronology of hydrothermal episodes.