Origins of the Geosynclinal Borderland theory

Charles Schuchert developed the geosynclinal concept ofHall andDana into a paleogeographic model of North America which included borderlands on the oceanic side of each geosyncline. These lands were the source of thick clastic sediments which accumulated in the geosynclines. As early as 1841 H. D.Rogers inferred a southeastern source for clastic sediments in the Appalachian Mountains.Hall (1859) proposed that folded mountains form only where sediments have accumulated to great thickness in narrow bands along the margin of continents. Dana named such belts geosynclinals. He advocated a theory of continental growth by accretion of rocks around a primitive nucleus. In 1890 he recognized Archaean protaxes east of the Appalachians, west of the Rocky Mountains, and probably in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada range. C. D. Walcott showed Dana's Archaean highlands on maps which related the thickness of Cambrian deposits to times of submergence. H. S.Williams named the eastern land Appalachia in 1897. Details for other periods were mapped by B. Willis and by A. W. Grabau in 1909, neither of whom showed any western borderland.A series of maps for short time intervals bySchuchert (1910) show numerous positive areas including a large Cascadia west of the Cordilleran trough. Faunal relationships implied that the Appalachain geosyncline was largely isolated from the Atlantic Ocean during the Paleozoic. In 1923Schuchert insisted that geosynclines were part of the continent, not ocean margins nor mediterraneans, and that the sediments implied borderlands that had repeatedly been elevated and eroded.

---

Zusammenfassung Charles Schuchert hat den Geosynklinal-Begriff J.Halls und J. D.Danas zu einem paläogeographischen Entwurf Nordamerikas entwickelt, in dem Borderlands (Grenzländer) zwischen Geosynklinale und Tiefsee lagen. Diese Länder waren die Quelle der mächtigen klastischen Sedimentgesteine der Geosynklinale. Schon im Jahre 1841 schloß H. D.Rogers auf eine Sediment-Quelle südöstlich der Appalachen. 1859 vertratHall die Ansicht, daß Faltengebirge sich nur dort bilden, wo mächtige Sedimentablagerungen sich in engen Streifen am Rande des Kontinents angehäuft haben. Dana hat solche Streifen Geosynklinalen genannt. Er unterstützte eine Theorie über Wachstum der Kontinente durch Zunahme von Gesteinen um einen Ur-Kern. Im Jahre 1890 hat er Archaische Protaxes östlich der Appalachen, westlich der Rocky-Mountain-Kette, und vermutlich in den Cascade- und Sierra Nevada-Gebirgen der westlichen Vereinigten Staaten anerkannt.C. D. Walcott hat diese Urgebirge von Dana auf einer Karte dargestellt, die die Mächtigkeit der kambrischen Sediment-Gesteine in Verbindung mit Überschwemmungen gebracht haben. H. S.Williams hat 1897 das östliche Land Appalachia genannt. Paläogeographischen Karten für andere Zeitabschnitte von B.Willis und von A.Grabau in 1909 zeigen östliche, aber keine westlichen Borderlands. Schuchert (1910) hat eine Reihe paläographischer Karten für kleine Abschnitte des Phanerozoischen Zeitalters veröffentlicht, welche zahlreiche hochstehende Gebiete zeigen, ein großes Cascadia westlich der kordillerischen Geosynklinale eingeschlossen. Die faunistischen Verwandtschaften zeigen, daß die Appalachen-Geosynklinalen größtenteils von dem Atlantischen Meer des Paläozoischen Zeitalters isoliert war. Im Jahre 1923 betontSchuchert, daß die Geosynklinalen Teile des Kontinents sind, weder Ränder der Meere, noch mittelländische Meere. Die Sediment-Ablagerungen der Geosynklinalen deuten auf Borderlands, die wiederholt gehoben und erodiert wurden.

---

Résumé Charles Schuchert a développé la notion de géosynclinal, idée conçue par J.Hall et J. D.Dana, dans un modèle paléogéographique de l'Amérique du Nord incluant des »borderlands«sur le bord océanique de chaque géosynclinal. Ces régions ont été les sources de sédiments élastiques épais qui s'accumulèrent dans les géosynclinaux. Déjà en 1841 H. D.Rogers avait déduit la provenance sud-est des depôts clastiques des Appalaches.Hall (1859) a proposé que les montagnes plissées se forment seulement où une grande epaisseur de sédiments s'est accumulée en une bande étroite le long du bord continental. Dana a appelé ces bandes »géosynclinal«. Il a soutenu une théorie de l'accroissement des continents par l'addition de roches autour d'un noyau ancien, En 1890 il reconnaît la présence de protoaxes archéens à l'est des Appalaches, à l'ouest des Montagnes Rocheuses, et, probablement, dans la Sierra Nevada et les Cascades. C. D.Walcott a figuré ces hauts plateaux archéens sur des cartes qui rapportent l'épaisseur des dépots cambriens aux époques de la submersion. H. S.Williams a dénommé »Appalaches« le borderland oriental en 1897. D'autres cartes paléogéographiques par B.Willis et par A.Grabau (1909) ont été dressées sans qu'un borderland occidental y soit montré.Une série de cartes parSchuchert (1910), pour de courtes périodes, montre de nombreuses terres soulevées, y compris une grande Cascadia à l'ouest du géosynclinal de la Cordillère. Les relations fauniques indiquent que le géosynclinal appalachien fut largement isolé de l'Atlantique pendant le Paléozoique. En 1923Schuchert a maintenu que les géosynclinaux faisaient partie des continents, et n'étaient ni en bordure des océans, ni des mers méditerranéennes. Leurs sédiments indiquent des borderlands soulevés et érodés à pluseurs reprises.

---

J. Hall'a J. Dana, Charles Schuchert , (Borderlands) . . 1841 . 1859 Hall , , . . . 1890 , ( ) , , Cascade Sierra Nevada .. D. Walcott , . H. S. Williams . (Willis, Grabau, 1909). Schuchert (1910) , , Cascadia . , . 1923 Schuchert , , , . , .

     

Thermal evolution of the Northern Cordillera Volcanic Province: implication for heat flow in remnant back-arc regions

ABSTRACT

Active and remnant back-arc regions do not follow a typical conductive lithosphere cooling model, but instead have an apparent two-stage cooling, defined by a high heat flow back-arc region during subduction and a second post-subduction heating event that extends elevated heat flow for several 10s million years. Numerical one-stage cooling models have not reproduced observed heat flow anomalies in active subduction zones using physically realistic parameters and require a secondary post-subduction heating mechanism. Here, an extension driven-volcanism model is developed to examine extension driven heating and volcanism as a mechanism to produce a prolonged thermal anomaly within back-arc lithosphere. This model is tested using the recorded thermal evolution of the Northern Cordillera Volcanic Province (NCVP), a Neogene-Quaternary alkaline volcanic province located in the remnant back-arc region of the Pacific-North American subduction zone in British Columbia, Canada. A single steady-state lithosphere geotherm does not intersect all previously published temperature estimates, suggesting previous data record the thermal evolution of the NCVP. Calculated geotherms at equilibrium with the minimum and maximum MELTS temperatures predict an increase in reduced mantle heat flow (Q_m ) from 43 to 72 mW/m² and lithosphere thinning from a depth of 87 to 48 km. The newly developed extension-volcanism model reproduced the calculated pre- and post-volcanism thermal regimes for the NCVP and supports that extension within the remnant back-arc could produce the present heat flow anomaly and volcanism. The model most readily produces volcanism when Q_m is ~45–65 mW/m², a typical range for back-arcs. Back-arc regions are prime locations for limited volcanism because their warmer thermal regime minimizes tectonic stress requirements to produce volcanism. Additionally, two-stage cooling of back-arcs can be explained with a time-dependent extension-volcanism thermal feedback mechanism that is possible because of the subduction driven pre-heating of back-arc regions.     

Characterization of the effects of high multipath phase rates in GPS

GPS multipath has been studied since the early 1970s. Prior to the investigation described in this paper, however, the effects due to the relative Doppler shift between the direct and multipath signal components have received scant attention. The single previous study that did address the issue indicated coherent receivers had significant performance advantages over noncoherent receivers. Specifically, it was stated that under the condition of fast-fading multipath, noncoherent receivers would yield a bias error, whereas coherent receivers would not. After reviewing the background theory, this paper describes a revised model of the phenomenon and shows the results of hardware simulations which validate the existence of the bias in both receiver types and offer support for the new model. A case study of a specific commercial receiver is presented. Electronic Publication     

Mapping Soils,Vegetation, and Landforms: An Integrative Physical Geography Field Experience*

Students in a graduate seminar at Michigan State University produced a series of detailed vegetation, soils, and landform maps of a 1.5‐square‐mile (3.9 km²) study area in southwest Lower Michigan. The learning outcomes (maps) and skill development objectives (sampling strategies and various GIS applications) of this field‐intensive mapping experience were driven by the assumption that students learn and understand relationships among physical landscape variables better by mapping them than they would in a classroom‐based experience. The group‐based, problem‐solving format was also intended to foster collaboration and camaraderie. The study area lies within a complex, interlobate moraine. Fieldwork involved mapping in groups of two or three, as well as soil and vegetation sampling. Spatial data products assembled and used in the project included topographic maps, a digital elevation model (DEM), aerial photographs, and NRCS (National Resource Conservation Service) soil maps. Most of the soils are dry and sandy, with the main differentiating characteristic being the amount of, and depth to, subsurface clay bands (lamellae) or gravelly zones. The presettlement (early 1830s) vegetation of the area was oak forest, oak savanna, and black oak “barrens.” Upland sites currently support closed forests of white, black, and red oak, with a red maple, dogwood, and sassafras understory. Ecological data suggest that these oak forests will, barring major disturbance, become increasingly dominated by red maple. This group‐based, problem‐solving approach to physical geography education has several advantages over traditional classroom‐based teaching and could also be successfully applied in other, field‐related disciplines.     

Basis for Paleoenvironmental Interpretation of Magnetic Properties of Sediment from Upper Klamath Lake (Oregon): Effects of Weathering and Mineralogical Sorting

Studies of magnetic properties enable reconstruction of environmental conditions that affected magnetic minerals incorporated in sediments from Upper Klamath Lake. Analyses of stream sediment samples from throughout the catchment of Upper Klamath Lake show that alteration of Fe-oxide minerals during subaerial chemical weathering of basic volcanic rocks has significantly changed magnetic properties of surficial deposits. Titanomagnetite, which is abundant both as phenocrysts and as microcrystals in fresh volcanic rocks, is progressively destroyed during weathering. Because fine-grained magnetite is readily altered due to large surface-to-volume ratios, weathering causes an increase in average magnetic grain size as well as reduction in the quantity of titanomagnetite both absolutely and relative to hematite. Hydrodynamic mineralogical sorting also produces differences in magnetic properties among rock and mineral grains of differing sizes. Importantly, removal of coarse silicate and Fe-oxide grains by sorting concentrated extremely fine-grained magnetite in the resulting sediment. The effects of weathering and sorting of minerals cannot be completely separated. These processes combine to produce the magnetic properties of a non-glacial lithic component of Upper Klamath Lake sediments, which is characterized by relatively low magnetite content and coarse magnetic grain size. Hydrodynamic sorting alone causes significant differences between the magnetic properties of glacial flour in lake sediments and of fresh volcanic rocks in the catchment. In comparison to source volcanic rocks, glacial flour in the lake sediment is highly enriched in extremely fine-grained magnetite.     

Paleolimnology and Paleoclimate Studies in Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon

The subsiding Upper Klamath Lake Basin contains sediments that were continuously deposited in a shallow, freshwater lake for more than 40 000 years. Well dated by radiometric methods and containing volcanic ashes of known age, these sediments constitute a valuable paleoclimate record. Sediment constituents and properties that reflect past climatic conditions in the area include pollen, diatoms, sediment geochemistry, and sediment magnetic properties. Many of these proxy measurements are also useful for comparing natural conditions in the lake to conditions following human settlement. Because of its location, the paleoclimate record from Upper Klamath Lake is valuable for comparisons to offshore marine records and as part of latitudinal transects of paleoclimate records along the west coast of the Americas.     

International Emission Trading and the Cost of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Mitigation and Sequestration

The deployment of carbon capture and sequestration (CC&S) technologies is greatly affected by the marginal cost of controlling carbon emissions (also the value of carbon, when emissions permits are traded). Both the severity and timing of emissions limitations and the degree to which emissions limitation obligations can be traded will affect the value of carbon and thereby the timing and magnitude of CC&S technology deployment. Emissions limits that are more stringent in the near term imply higher near-term carbon values and therefore encourage the local development and deployment of CC&S technologies.Trade in emissions obligations lowers the cost of meeting any regional or global emissions limit and so affects the rate of penetration of CC&S technologies. Trade lowers the marginal value of carbon and CC&S penetration in high cost regions and raises the marginal value of carbon and CC&S penetration in low cost regions. The net impact on the world CC&Stechnologies depends on whether their increased use in low-cost regions exceeds the reduced use in high-cost regions.In the long term, CC&S technologies must not only remove carbon but permanently sequester it. If reservoirs are not permanent, then the emissions and costs of control are merely displaced into the future. The paper presents quantitative estimates for the impacts of trade in emissions limitation obligations on the timing, magnitude, and geographic distribution of CC&S technologies and the marginal and total costs of carbon control.