Reflection moveout inversion in azimuthally anisotropic media: accuracy, limitations and acquisition

Parameter estimation from the elliptical variations in the normal-moveout (NMO) velocity in azimuthally anisotropic media is sensitive to the angular separation between the survey lines in 2D, or equivalently, the source-to-receiver azimuth in 3D, and to the set of azimuths used in the inversion procedure. The accuracy in estimating the orientation of an NMO ellipse, in particular the parameter α, is also sensitive to the magnitude of anisotropy. On the other hand, the accuracy in estimating the semi-axes of the NMO-velocity ellipse is about the same for any magnitude of anisotropy.   To invert for the NMO ellipse parameters at least three NMO-velocity measurements along distinct azimuth directions are needed. In order to maximize the accuracy and stability in parameter estimation, it is best to have the azimuths for the three source-to-receiver directions 60° apart. Having more than three distinct source-to-receiver azimuths (e.g. full azimuthal coverage) provides a useful data redundancy that enhances the quality of the estimates.   In order to maximize quality in the inversion process, it is recommended to design the seismic data acquisition such that it contains small sectors (≤10°) with adequate fold and offset distribution.   Using three NMO-velocity measurements, 60° apart, an azimuthally anisotropic layer overlain by an azimuthally isotropic overburden (as might occur for fractured reservoirs) should have a relative thickness (in time) with respect to the total thickness at least equal to the ratio of the error in the NMO (stacking) velocity to the interval anisotropy of the fractured layer. Coverage along more than three azimuths, however, improves this limitation, which is imposed by Dix differentiation, by at most 50%, depending on the number of observations (NMO velocities) that enter the inversion procedure.     

Toxicity studies of elemental sulfur in marine sediments

Elemental sulfur(ES) is a component essential for proper development of animals, but it can be toxic for aquatic organisms. The objectives of the study reported here included determination of ES concentrations in sediment collected in the area of the Gulf of Gdansk(Baltic Sea) and search for the possible correlations with the ecotoxicity results. Sediment samples were collected from four locations: the Vistula River mouth, in the Port Basin, in the area of discharge of the treated wastewater from the Wastewater Treatment Plant(WWTP) and in the area of the sunken World War Ⅱ s/s 'Stuttgart' shipwreck. The levels of elemental sulfur were determined using a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer(GC-MS). Toxicity of marine sediment samples was estimated for three biotest organisms-bioluminescent bacteria Vibrio fischeri, crustacean Heterocypris incongruens, and Synapis alba plant. The highest toxicity of sediments for all indicator organisms was observed in samples taken at the place of the shipwreck(2-100%). The same samples had a high sulfur content(16.7-143.2 μg/g dry weight(d.w.))therefore, it was decided to investigate whether the presence of ES in the sediment in the studied area can have an impact on the results of the ecotoxicity determination in real samples. However, the removal of sulfur from the samples resulted in no significant changes in the level of toxicity of the samples. In this research it could not be confirmed that the presence of elemental sulfur is the only factor responsible for the observed sediment toxicity. It seems that other compounds or their mixtures present in the sediment may have a significant influence on the results obtained.     

Instrumentation Development for In Situ 40Ar/39Ar Planetary Geochronology

The chronology of the Solar System, particularly the timing of formation of extra‐terrestrial bodies and their features, is an outstanding problem in planetary science. Although various chronological methods for in situ geochronology have been proposed (e.g., Rb‐Sr, K‐Ar), and even applied (K‐Ar), the reliability, accuracy, and applicability of the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar method makes it by far the most desirable chronometer for dating extra‐terrestrial bodies. The method however relies on the neutron irradiation of samples, and thus a neutron source. Herein, we discuss the challenges and feasibility of deploying a passive neutron source to planetary surfaces for the in situ application of the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar chronometer. Requirements in generating and shielding neutrons, as well as analysing samples are described, along with an exploration of limitations such as mass, power and cost. Two potential solutions for the in situ extra‐terrestrial deployment of the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar method are presented. Although this represents a challenging task, developing the technology to apply the ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar method on planetary surfaces would represent a major advance towards constraining the timescale of solar system formation and evolution.     

Environmental change,hydromorphological reference conditions and the restoration of Polish Carpathian rivers

In the twentieth century Polish Carpathian rivers were considerably modified by channelization and gravel mining, with significant detrimental effects to their ecological integrity, vertical stability of the streambeds and flood hazard to downstream river reaches. Restoration of the rivers is thus necessary to improve their ecological status and re‐establish geomorphic dynamic equilibrium conditions. Various approaches to defining hydromorphological reference conditions, proposed to date in river restoration literature, have serious deficiencies. In particular, environmental changes that took place in the catchments of Carpathian rivers during the twentieth century invalidate the historical state of the rivers as reference for their restoration. This is illustrated by a change from bar‐braided to island‐braided channel pattern that occurred in the past century in unmanaged sections of the Czarny Dunajec in response to a reduction in flow and sediment dynamics of the river. We indicate that reference conditions should be defined as those which exist or would exist under present environmental conditions in the catchment but without human influence on the channel, riparian zone and floodplain of the river which is to be restored. This assumption was tested through the evaluation of hydromorphological river quality of the Czarny Dunajec according to the European Standard EN‐14614. The evaluation confirmed a high‐status hydromorphological quality in an unmanaged channel section, which can thus be used as a reference for restoration of impacted river sections. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Coming to the table: Early stakeholder engagement in marine spatial planning

From 2009 to 2011, marine spatial planning (MSP) rapidly gained visibility in the United States as a promising ocean management tool. A few small-scale planning efforts were completed in state waters, and the Obama Administration proposed a framework for large-scale regional MSP throughout the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. During that same time period, the authors engaged a variety of U.S ocean stakeholders in a series of dialogs with several goals: to share information about what MSP is or could be, to hear stakeholder views and concerns about MSP, and to foster better understanding between those who depend on ocean resources for their livelihood and ocean conservation advocates. The stakeholder meetings were supplemented with several rounds of in-depth interviews and a survey. Despite some predictable areas of conflict, project participants agreed on a number of issues related to stakeholder engagement in MSP: all felt strongly that government planners need to engage outsiders earlier, more often, more meaningfully, and through an open and transparent process. Equally important, the project affirmed the value of bringing unlike parties together at the earliest opportunity to learn, talk, and listen to others with whom they rarely engage.     

Contemporary glacigenic inputs to the dust cycle

The importance of glacigenic dust in the Earth's system during glacial periods is widely acknowledged. Under contemporary conditions, the world's largest dust sources are in low‐lying, hot, arid regions and this is where most aeolian research is focused. However the processes of dust production and emissions are still operating in cold climate regions, particularly in proglacial areas. This paper assesses current understanding of the relationship between glacierised landscapes and dust emissions and inputs to the global dust cycle. It focuses on how elements in the glacial and aeolian geomorphic sub‐systems interact to determine the magnitude, frequency and timing of aeolian dust emissions, and on feedback mechanisms between the systems. Where they have been measured, dust emission intensity and deposition rates in glacierised catchments are very high, in some cases far exceeding those in lower latitudes, however, few studies span long time scales. The impact of future glacier retreat on the balance between sediment supply, availability and aeolian transport capacity and implications for glacigenic dust emissions is also considered. This balance depends on relative spatial and temporal changes in meltwater suspended sediment concentration and wind strengths, which promote dust emissions, and patterns and rates of soil development and vegetation succession on recently‐deglaciated terrain which protect sediments from deflation. Retreat of the Antarctic ice sheet could mean that in future glacigenic contributions to the dust cycle exceed those of non‐glacigenic sources in the southern hemisphere. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Paleowind velocity and paleocurrents of pluvial Lake Manly,Death Valley,USA

Pluvial lake deposits are found throughout western North America and are frequently used to reconstruct regional paleoclimate. In Death Valley, California, USA, we apply the beach particle technique (BPT) of Adams (2003), Sedimentology, 50, 565–577 and Adams (2004), Sedimentology, 51, 671–673 to Lake Manly deposits at the Beatty Junction Bar Complex (BJBC), Desolation Canyon, and Manly Terraces and calculate paleowind velocities of 14–27 m/s. These wind velocities are within the range of present-day wind velocities recorded in the surrounding area. Sedimentary structures and clast provenance at Desolation Canyon and the Manly Terraces indicate sediment transport from north to south. Lake level, based on the elevation of constructional features, indicates that the hill west of the BJBC was an island and that the BJBC spits formed during simple lake regression. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that the present wind regime (velocity and direction) formed the pluvial Lake Manly features.     

Surveying the Townscape of Roman Ammaia in Portugal: An Integrated Geoarchaeological Investigation of the Forum Area

Geoarchaeological research, integrating traditional excavations, and ground truthing with intensive geophysical surveys, aerial photography, and GIS‐based data processing, has revealed the full intramural plan of the abandoned Roman city of Ammaia in central Portugal. Although this multidisciplinary effort also focussed on understanding the town/territory relationships and the system of resource exploitation, this paper presents the most important results from fieldwork in the central monumental area of the town, the Roman Forum. Here, excavations, geomorphological survey, and an array of geophysical methods illuminate the long history of the site, from the first settlement and monument‐building phases in early Imperial times, to the ongoing post‐abandonment processes. This paper discusses some of the benefits of compiling these complementary data sets and proposes the use of a wide array of approaches in order to achieve full understanding of the complex topography and evolution of a classical urban site. It further demonstrates the need for effective stratigraphical control and geomorphological analysis of crucial areas revealed by high‐quality geophysics.     

Impact of the azores front propagation on deep ocean particle flux

The Azores Current originating as a branch of the Gulf Stream is a highly dynamic system in the subtropical North Atlantic. The associated front forms the northeastern boundary of the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre. In this study we analyzed 42 years of assimilated modeled temperature fields to localize the position of the Azores Front at 22°W and observed a fast north- and southward propagation between 30°N and 37°N on monthly to decadal time scales. The North Atlantic Oscillation with correlated changes of the wind direction was identified as one driving mechanism. As the front is acting as a guide for Rossby waves, the signal of the front??s propagation is transferred to the western Atlantic and, among other atmospheric forcing mechanisms, induces a shifting of the Northern Wall of the Gulf Stream with one year delay. Shallower mixed layer depths in the northern frontal region of the Azores Current caused by the rise of the isotherms lead to nutrient supply and primary production different from those found in the southern frontal region of the current system. A high interannual variability is manifested in deep ocean particle flux, derived from a sediment trap in 2000 m water depth at the mooring site KIEL276 (33°N, 22°W) from 1993 to 2008, which is directly related to the phytoplankton bloom in the euphotic zone. This variability is explained by the propagation of the front and strong variations in the catchment areas of the sediment trap due to the associated eddy activity in the frontal region.