On Some Simplifications of Cokriging Neighborhood

Choosing the cokriging neighborhood is often difficult. A poor choice, ignoring influent data, can result in a loss of information as well as in artifacts in simulations based on cokriging. Then it is convenient to use if possible, or to refer to models that lead to simplified cokriging neighborhood. We essentially consider the case of two stationary variables, a target variable and an auxiliary one. By examining possible simplifications, we set up a list of models (essentially models with residuals) that, in general or under specific configurations, lead to simplifications of cokriging neighborhood. Collocated, dislocated, and other types of neighborhood are identified, that are optimal in some models and configurations. Possible extensions to cokriging with unknown means, and to more variables, are included.     

A Reflection on Mg, Cd, Ca, Li and Si Isotopic Measurements and Related Reference Materials

This contribution aims to report the reflections we had with the scientific community during two international workshops on reference materials for stable isotopes in Davos (2002) and Nice (2003). After evaluating the isotopic homogeneity of some existing reference materials, based on either certificates, literature data or specific inter-laboratory rounds, we confirm these as primary reference materials or propose new ones relative to which stable isotope compositions should be reported. We propose DSM-3 for Mg, NIST SRM 915a for Ca, L-SVEC for Li and NBS28 for Si. Cadmium does not yet have a well identified delta zero material, although three commercial mono-elemental Cd solutions have yielded the same isotopic composition relative to one another. In order to scale the linearity of any mass spectrometer, some secondary reference materials are also proposed: Cambridge-1 solution for Mg, the "Münster-Cd" and JEPPIM Cd solutions for Cd and the "Big Batch" silicate for Si. The team from Nancy propose to prepare a mixed spike solution for Li isotopes. Well-characterised natural samples such as ocean or continental waters, diatoms, sponges, rocks and minerals are needed to validate the entire analytical procedure, particularly to take into account the effect of sample mineralisation and of chemical manipulations for elemental separation prior to analysis.     

Environmental impact of an urban landfill on a coastal aquifer (El Jadida, Morocco)

The El Jadida landfill is one among many uncontrolled dumping sites in Morocco with no bottom liner. About 150 tons/day of solid wastes from mixed urban and industrial origins are placed directly on the ground. At the site of this landfill, the groundwaters circulate deeply (10–15 m) in the Cenomanian rock (calcareous–marl), which is characterised by an important permeability from cracks. The soil is sand–clay characterized by a weak coefficient of retention.The phreatic water ascends to the bottom of three quarries, which are located within the landfill. These circumstances, along with the lack of a leachate collection system, worsen the risks for a potential deterioration of the aquifer.To evaluate groundwater pollution due to this urban landfill, piezometric level and geochemical analyses have been monitored since 1999 on 60 wells. The landfill leachate has been collected from the three quarries that are located within the landfill. The average results of geochemical analyses show an important polluant charge vehiculed by landfill leachate (chloride = 5680 mg l⁻¹, chemical oxygen demand = 1000 mg l⁻¹, iron = 23 000 μg l⁻¹). They show also an important qualitative degradation of the groundwater, especially in the parts situated in the down gradient area and in direct proximity to the landfill. In these polluted zones, we have observed the following values: higher than 4.5 mS cm⁻¹ in electric conductivity, 1620 and 1000 mg l⁻¹ respectively in chlorides and sulfate (), 15–25 μg l⁻¹ in cadmium, and 60–100 μg l⁻¹ in chromium. These concentrations widely exceed the standard values for potable water.Several determining factors in the evolution of groundwater contamination have been highlighted, such as (1) depth of the water table, (2) permeability of soil and unsaturated zone, (3) effective infiltration, (4) humidity and (5) absence of a system for leachate drainage. So, to reduce the pollution risks of the groundwater, it is necessary to set a system of collection, drainage and treatment of landfill leachates and to emplace an impermeable surface at the site of landfill, in order to limit the infiltration of leachate.     

Effet de la teneur en eau d'un sol sur la réduction bactérienne d'oxydes de fer

Iron-reducing activity of autochthonous bacteria from two temporary hydromorphic soils is evaluated by the study of iron reductive dissolution, as a function of water content. The release of ferrous iron in solution is coupled to the mineralization of soil organic carbon. Water soil saturation is not necessary for iron reductive dissolution, since the highest dissolution is obtained for a wet, but not water-saturated soil (100% of water holding capacity WHC), and dissolution is also very high in a soil at 75% WHC. To cite this article: S.J. Stemmler et al., C. R. Geoscience 336 (2004).     

The Elusive AD 1826 Tsunami, South Westland, New Zealand

In AD 1826 sealers reported earthquake and tsunami activity in Fiordland, although, contemporary or near‐contemporary accounts of tsunami inundation at the time are elusive. A detailed analysis of recent sediments from Okarito Lagoon builds on contextual evidence provided by earlier research concerning past tsunami inundation. Sedimentological, geochemical, micropalaeontological and geochronological data are used to determine palaeoenvironments before, during and after what was most probably tsunami inundation in AD 1826. The most compelling chronological control is provided fry a young cohort of trees growing on a raised shoreline bench stranded fry a drop in the lagoon water level following tsunami inundation.     

MTBE in Drinking Water Production – Occurrence and Efficiency of Treatment Technologies

In Germany, the gasoline additive methyl tert‐butyl ether (MTBE) is almost constantly detected in measurable concentrations in surface waters and is not significantly removed during riverbank filtration. The removal of MTBE from water has been the focus of many studies that mostly were performed at high concentration levels and centred in understanding the mechanisms of elimination. In order to assess the performance of conventional and advanced water treatment technologies for MTBE removal in the low concentration range further studies were undertaken. Laboratory experiments included aeration, granulated activated carbon (GAC) adsorption, ozonation and advanced oxidation processes (AOP). The results show that the removal of MTBE by conventional technologies is not easily achieved. MTBE is only removed by aeration at high expense. Ozonation at neutral pH values did not prove to be effective in eliminating MTBE at all. The use of ozone/H₂O₂ (AOP) may lead to a partly elimination of MTBE. However, the ozone/H₂O₂ concentrations required for a complete removal of MTBE from natural waters is much higher than the ozone levels applied nowadays in waterworks. MTBE is only poorly adsorbed on activated carbon, thus GAC filtration is not efficient in eliminating MTBE. A comparison with real‐life data from German waterworks reveals that if MTBE is detected in the raw water it is most often found in the corresponding drinking water as well due to the poor removal efficiency of conventional treatment steps.     

Short‐term intertidal bar mobility on a ridge‐and‐runnel beach,Merlimont, northern France

Digital elevation models and topographic pro?les of a beach with intertidal bar and trough (ridge‐and‐runnel) morphology in Merlimont, northern France, were analysed in order to assess patterns of cross‐shore and longshore intertidal bar mobility. The beach exhibited a pronounced dual bar–trough system that showed cross‐shore stationarity. The bars and troughs were, however, characterized by signi?cant longshore advection of sand under the in?uence of suspension by waves and transport by strong tide‐ and wind‐driven longshore currents. Pro?le changes were due in part to the longshore migration of medium‐sized bedforms. The potential for cross‐shore bar migration appears to be mitigated by the large size of the two bars relative to incident wave energy, which is modulated by high vertical tidal excursion rates on this beach due to the large tidal range (mean spring tidal range = 8·3 m). Cross‐shore bar migration is also probably hindered by the well‐entrenched troughs which are maintained by channelled high‐energy intertidal ?ows generated by swash bores and by tidal discharge and drainage. The longshore migration of intertidal bars affecting Merlimont beach is embedded in a regional coastal sand transport pathway involving tidal and wind‐forced northward residual ?ows affecting the rectilinear northern French coast in the eastern English Channel. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An automated salt‐tracing gauge for flow‐velocity measurement

This article introduces the SVG (salt‐velocity gauge), a novel automated technique for measuring flow velocity by means of salt tracing. SVG allows a high measuring rate (up to one every 2 seconds), short control section length (down to 10 cm), high accuracy (+[sol ]?1·5 cm s^?1), and unbiased calculation of the mean velocity in experimental conditions with turbulent, supercritical flow. A few cubic centimetres of saturated salt solution (NaCl) are injected into the flow at regular time intervals using a programmable solenoid valve. The tracer successively passes two conductivity probes placed a short distance downstream. The transformation of the signal between the two probes is modelled as a one‐dimensional diffusion wave equation. Model calibration gives an estimation of the mean velocity and the diffusion for each salt plume. Two implementations of the SVG technique are described. The first was an outdoors simulated rainfall experiment in Senegal (conductivity probes at 40 cm apart, 8 Hz measurement rate, salt injections at 10 second intervals). Mean velocity was estimated to range between 0·1 and 0·3 m s^?1. The second was a laboratory‐based flume experiment (conductivity probes at 10 cm apart, 32 Hz, salt injections at 2 second intervals). Another SVG with probes at 34 cm apart was used for comparison. An acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) was also used to give an independent assessment of velocity. Using the 10 cm salt gauge, estimated mean velocity ranged from 0·6 to 0·9 m s^?1 with a standard deviation of 1·5 cm s^?1. Comparisons between ADV, 10 cm SVG and 34 cm SVG were consistent and demonstrated that the salt‐tracing results were unbiased and independent of distance between probes. Most peaks were modelled with r² > 90 per cent. The SVG technology offers an alternative to the dye‐tracing technique, which has been severely criticized in the literature because of the wide interval of recommended values for the correction factor α to be applied to the timings. This article demonstrates that a fixed value of α is inappropriate, since the correction factor varies with velocity, diffusion and the length of the control section. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.