Australian Climate,Energy and Water Policies: conflicts and synergies

Responding to the threat of climate change, conserving freshwater ecosystems and securing adequate energy and water supplies are among the greatest challenges facing modern societies. Yet recognition of the interdependencies between climate, energy and water policy—with resulting synergies and trade-offs—remains limited, leaving societies and governments alike vulnerable to the dangers of conflicted or unintended policy outcomes from sectoral decisions. In this paper, we analyse current Australian climate, energy and water policies to identify the risks of perverse outcomes between the three policy sectors. In doing so we categorise the conflicts and synergies between particular energy generation, carbon sequestration and water supply policies to improve understandings of the challenges facing decision makers in Australia and internationally. Four types of interventions are identified that would enable integration and optimisation of policies, namely: better cross-sectoral knowledge to inform decisions; the identification of technologies with co-benefits; markets with broader cross-sectoral participation (including linking water and carbon markets); and better-integrated governance institutions.     

Fieldwork Unbound: Spaces of Association in Postconflict Vietnam

This article traces the ways in which the field emerges and becomes emplaced among three groups of people by presenting an inclusive reading of fieldwork in postconflict Vietnam. It employs a heuristic device called spaces of association to illustrate the different yet interrelated socio-spatial fields that surface when conducting fieldwork in an environment known for violence. In shedding light on the field's ability to extend beyond the territorially defined “field site,” this article speaks to debates surrounding the socio-spatial production of multiple and overlapping fields, describes the audiences engaged with and implicated in research, and contributes to understandings of ethical research engagement with postconflict field sites.     

Fumarolic pipes in the Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff on the Pajarito Plateau, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico

The objective of this study is to demonstrate the relationships among devitrification, vapor phase alteration, localization of gas emanations into fumarolic pipes, and initial deformation of the ash flow sheet during cooling and lithification. Utilizing a unique and temporary exposure of the Tshirege Member of the Bandelier Tuff near Los Alamos, New Mexico, we identify several zones of distinctly preserved fossil fumarolic activity. The fumarolic zones vary in width from a few centimeters to more than a meter. Almost ubiquitously, these zones demonstrate fines-depletion, induration of the margins, upward-flaring geometries, and intense fracturing of overlying geologic units. The fumaroles were preferentially located on post welding, early formed cooling joints that vented to the surface after the vapor phase alteration stage. The pipes were regularly spaced at distances of approximately 4.5?m (N–S) to 7?m (E–W). In turn the pipes were covered by a surge deposit and overlying tuff which rapidly lithified. The overlying tuff was then brecciated during continued fumarolic pipe emissions. Geochemical evaluations confirm the presence of high-temperature mineral (scapolite) indicative of transport of hot volcanic gases through these zones. The pipe centers and walls are depleted in SiO₂, and enriched in Al₂O₃ and FeO. The overlying tuff breccia zones are enriched in Al₂O₃, FeO and MgO, and depleted in SiO₂, NaO, and K₂O. From comparison to other ignimbrite cooling histories, the fissures, fumaroles, and structures observed all likely formed in the first few decades after the deposition of the upper Tshirege subunits. This may have significant implications as to timing of initial cooling fractures and subsequent consolidation of gas emission pathways.     

Fractional order intensity measures for probabilistic seismic demand modeling applied to highway bridges

Probabilistic seismic analysis of structures involves the construction of seismic demand models, often stated as probabilistic models of structural response conditioned on a seismic intensity measure. The uncertainty introduced by the model is often a result of the chosen intensity measure. This paper introduces the concept of using fractional order intensity measures (IMs) in probabilistic seismic demand analysis and uses a single frame integral concrete box‐girder bridge class and a seismically designed multispan continuous steel girder bridge class as case studies. The fractional order IMs considered include peak ground response and spectral accelerations at 0.2 and 1.0 s considering a single degree of freedom system with fractional damping, , as well as a linear single degree of freedom system with fractional response, . The study reveals the advantage of fractional order IMs relative to conventional IMs such as peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, or spectral acceleration at 0.2 and 1.0 s. Metrics such as efficiency, sufficiency, practicality, and proficiency are measured to assess the optimal nature of fractional order IMs. The results indicate that the proposed fractional order IMs produce significant improvements in efficiency and proficiency, whereas maintaining practicality and sufficiency, and thus providing superior demand models that can be used in probabilistic seismic demand analysis. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Calculation of väisalä‐brunt frequencies and specific volume distributions of sea water

An expression is derived for the Vaisala‐Brunt frequency in terms of the gradients of potential temperature and salinity. Modifications to facilitate calculations are suggested. A new method for expressing the specific volume distribution in terms of pressure, potential temperature, and salinity is also discussed.     

Book reviews

A key to common algae. Freshwater, estuarine and some coastal species. By E. G. Bellinger. The Institution of Water and Environmental Management, United Kingdom. Fourth edition. Published in 1992.138 p. ISBN 1–870752 163.

Greater Cook Strait. By T. F. W. Harris, University of Auckland Marine Laboratory, Leigh. Published in 1990 by DSIR Marine & Freshwater, Wellington, New Zealand. ISBN 0–477–02580–3.

Samples of New Zealand science on CD‐ROM (for IBM‐compatibles only). Edited by J. A. Jasperse, 1992. SIR Publishing, Wellington. ISBN 0–908654–34–0. Price: NZ/US$50.00.     

High-frequency rock temperature data from hyper-arid desert environments in the Atacama and the Antarctic Dry Valleys and implications for rock weathering

In desert environments with low water and salt contents, rapid thermal variations may be an important source of rock weathering. We have obtained temperature measurements of the surface of rocks in hyper-arid hot and cold desert environments at a rate of 1/s over several days. The values of temperature change over 1-second intervals were similar in hot and cold deserts despite a 30 °C difference in absolute rock surface temperature. The average percentage of the time dT/dt > 2 °C/min was ~ 8 ± 3%, > 4 °C/min was 1 ± 0.9%, and > 8 °C/min was 0.02 ± 0.03%. The maximum change over a 1-second interval was ~ 10 °C/min. When sampled to simulate data taken over intervals longer than 1 s, we found a reduction in time spent above the 2 °C/min temperature gradient threshold. For 1-minute samples, the time spent above any given threshold was about two orders of magnitude lower than the corresponding value for 1-second sampling. We suggest that a rough measure of efficacy of weathering as a function of frequency is the product of the percentage of time spent above a given threshold value multiplied by the damping depth for the corresponding frequency. This product has a broad maximum for periods between 3 and 10 s.     

Bathymetric control of surf zone retention on a rip-channelled beach

Simulations from a numerical model address the impact of nearshore morphology on surf zone retention on, open coast, rip-channelled beaches exposed to shore-normal waves. In the model, rip channels are regularly spaced alongshore with a given spacing λ. For a given reference case bathymetry (λ= 200 m), rip current circulations retain floating material at a hourly rate R of about 80 % which is in line with most existing field and laboratory studies in similar settings. The influence of a surf zone rip-channel morphology on surf zone retention is evaluated by a number of morphologic parameters. Results show that rip spacing is important. The ratio of the surf zone width X _s to rip spacing λ controls surf zone retention with R rapidly increasing with increasing X _s /λ up to a threshold of about 1 above which R levels off to become asymptotic to 100 %. The impact of the presence of a rip head bar is profound but nonlinear. The onset of wave breaking across the rip head bar drives a weak seaward located circulation providing major pathways for surface water exiting the surf zone compartment. Additional simulations suggest that alongshore variations in the offshore bathymetry are important. Patterns in the wave field enforced by wave refraction and potentially wave breaking across offshore bathymetric anomalies can provide a conduit for transporting floating material out of the surf zone and into the inner shelf region. This has major implications for surf zone flushing by inner-bar rips on multiple-barred beaches and on beaches facing bathymetric anomalies on the inner shelf.     

Detecting changing river temperatures in England and Wales

Changes in water temperature can have important consequences for aquatic ecosystems, with some species being sensitive even to small shifts in temperature during some or all of their life cycle. While many studies report increasing regional and global air temperatures, evidence of changes in river water temperature has, thus far, been site specific and often from sites heavily influenced by human activities that themselves could lead to warming. Here we present a tiered assessment of changing river water temperature covering England and Wales with data from 2773 locations. We use novel statistical approaches to detect trends in irregularly sampled spot measurements taken between 1990 and 2006. During this 17‐year period, on average, mean water temperature increased by 0.03 °C per year (±0.002 °C), and positive changes in water temperature were observed at 2385 (86%) sites. Examination of catchments where there has been limited human influence on hydrological response shows that changes in river flow have had little influence on these water temperature trends. In the absence of other systematic influences on water temperature, it is inferred that anthropogenically driven climate change is driving some of this trend in water temperature. © 2014 The Authors. Hydrological Processes published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

Hubbert’s Legacy: A Review of Curve-Fitting Methods to Estimate Ultimately Recoverable Resources

A growing number of commentators are forecasting a near-term peak and subsequent terminal decline in the global production of conventional oil as a result of the physical depletion of the resource. These forecasts frequently rely on the estimates of the ultimately recoverable resources (URR) of different regions, obtained through the use of curve-fitting to historical trends in discovery or production. Curve-fitting was originally pioneered by M. King Hubbert in the context of an earlier debate about the future of the US oil production. However, despite their widespread use, curve-fitting techniques remain the subject of considerable controversy. This article classifies and explains these techniques and identifies both their relative suitability in different circumstances and the level of confidence that may be placed in their results. This article discusses the interpretation and importance of the URR estimates, indicates the relationship between curve fitting and other methods of estimating the URR and classifies the techniques into three groups. It then investigates each group in turn, indicating their historical origins, contemporary application and major strengths and weaknesses. The article then uses illustrative data from a number of oil-producing regions to assess whether these techniques produce consistent results as well as highlight some of the statistical issues raised and suggesting how they may be addressed. The article concludes that the applicability of curve-fitting techniques is more limited than adherents claim and that the confidence bounds on the results are wider than usually assumed.