High Resolution Köppen‐Geiger Classifications of Paleoclimate Simulations

The development and application of an algorithm to compute Köppen‐Geiger climate classifications from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) and Paleo Model Intercomparison Project (PMIP) climate model simulation data is described in this study. The classification algorithm was applied to data from the PMIP III paleoclimate experiments for the Last Glacial Maximum, 21k years before present (yBP), Mid‐Holocene (6k yBP) and the Pre‐Industrial (0k yBP, control run) time slices. To infer detailed classification maps, the simulation datasets were interpolated to a higher resolution. The classification method presented is based on the application of Open Source Software, and the implementation is described with attention to detail. The source code and the exact input data sets as well as the resulting data sets are provided to enable the application of the presented approach.     

Spin rate estimation of sounding rockets using GPS wind-up

Carrier phase wind-up is a well-known effect that arises from the relative rotation between a transmitting and receiving antenna. In GPS measurements at L1 frequency, this effect translates into an error of 19.029 cm per full relative rotation of antennas. Since this effect is independent of the satellite elevation for pure rotation about the antenna boresight axis, it is usually absorbed by the clock estimation in navigation algorithms. Therefore, the impact of wind-up is usually neglected for applications that do not require accuracies to the cm level like RTK. However, in receiving platforms with high rotation rate, the accumulated wind-up value can be important and actually be larger than receiver noise or even ionospheric variations. Therefore, in such scenarios, the wind-up contribution can be isolated and used as a source of information to compute the spin rate of such platforms using an appropriate combination of GPS observables. This work shows some results of a coarse, yet simple, approach to monitor the rotation angle and spin-rate of spin stabilized sounding rockets flown by DLR.     

Population growth and the development of a central place system

This paper describes the spatial and functional evolution of a central place system as market conditions change with population growth. Utilizing a partial equilibrium optimization model, we examine the spatial response of two economic sectors to increases in market populations resulting from natural increase and migration. Response in both sectors is conditioned by threshold demand, with factor prices also affecting one of the sectors. As the central place system evolves it exhibits spatial and functional characteristics that are initially consistent with a Löschian landscape, then a Christallerian landscape at higher populations, while at even larger populations Krugman’s landscape emerges.     

Feature Extraction in Remote Sensing High-Dimensional Image Data

High-dimensional image data open new possibilities in remote sensing digital image classification, particularly when dealing with classes that are spectrally very similar. The main problem refers to the estimation of a large number of classifier's parameters. One possible solution to this problem consists in reducing the dimensionality of the original data without a significant loss of information. In this letter, a new approach to reduce data dimensionality is proposed. In the proposed methodology, each pixel's curve of spectral response is initially segmented, and the digital numbers (DNs) at each segment are replaced by a smaller number of statistics. In this letter, the proposed statistics are the mean and variance of the segment's DNs, which are supposed to carry information about the segment's position and shape, respectively. Tests were performed by using Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer hyperspectral image data. The experiments have shown that this methodology is capable of providing very acceptable results, in addition of being computationally efficient     

On the Existence of Coverage and Integration Time Regimes in Bistatic SAR Configurations

Bistatic synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is an extension of traditional monostatic SAR, which increases the flexibility in designing SAR missions. We describe a scheme for the computation of integration time and azimuth coverage of bistatic SARs based on space-time diagrams. A classification of bistatic SAR configurations is introduced in terms of size and velocity on the ground of antenna footprints. Bistatic SAR regimes are also identified.     

High-Resolution Forecast Models of Water Vapor Over Mountains: Comparison With MERIS and Meteosat Data

Propagation delay due to variable tropospheric water vapor (WV) is one of the most intractable problems for radar interferometry, particularly over mountains. The WV field can be simulated by an atmospheric model, and the difference between the two fields is used to correct the radar interferogram. Here, we report our use of the U.K. Met Office Unified Model in a nested mode to produce high-resolution forecast fields for the 3-km-high Mount Etna volcano. The simulated precipitable-water field is validated against that retrieved from the Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) radiometer on the Envisat satellite, which has a resolution of 300 m. Two case studies, one from winter (November 24, 2004) and one from summer (June 25, 2005), show that the mismatch between the model and the MERIS fields ( rms = 1.1 and 1.6 mm, respectively) is small. One of the main potential sources of error in the models is the timing of the WV field simulation. We show that long-wavelength upper tropospheric troughs of low WV could be identified in both the model output and Meteosat WV imagery for the November 24, 2004 case and used to choose the best time of model output.     

Evaluating a thermal image sharpening model over a mixed agricultural landscape in India

Fine spatial resolution (e.g., <300 m) thermal data are needed regularly to characterise the temporal pattern of surface moisture status, water stress, and to forecast agriculture drought and famine. However, current optical sensors do not provide frequent thermal data at a fine spatial resolution. The TsHARP model provides a possibility to generate fine spatial resolution thermal data from coarse spatial resolution (≥1 km) data on the basis of an anticipated inverse linear relationship between the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) at fine spatial resolution and land surface temperature at coarse spatial resolution. The current study utilised the TsHARP model over a mixed agricultural landscape in the northern part of India. Five variants of the model were analysed, including the original model, for their efficiency. Those five variants were the global model (original); the resolution-adjusted global model; the piecewise regression model; the stratified model; and the local model. The models were first evaluated using Advanced Space-borne Thermal Emission Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) thermal data (90 m) aggregated to the following spatial resolutions: 180 m, 270 m, 450 m, 630 m, 810 m and 990 m. Although sharpening was undertaken for spatial resolutions from 990 m to 90 m, root mean square error (RMSE) of <2 K could, on average, be achieved only for 990–270 m in the ASTER data. The RMSE of the sharpened images at 270 m, using ASTER data, from the global, resolution-adjusted global, piecewise regression, stratification and local models were 1.91, 1.89, 1.96, 1.91, 1.70 K, respectively. The global model, resolution-adjusted global model and local model yielded higher accuracy, and were applied to sharpen MODIS thermal data (1 km) to the target spatial resolutions. Aggregated ASTER thermal data were considered as a reference at the respective target spatial resolutions to assess the prediction results from MODIS data. The RMSE of the predicted sharpened image from MODIS using the global, resolution-adjusted global and local models at 250 m were 3.08, 2.92 and 1.98 K, respectively. The local model consistently led to more accurate sharpened predictions by comparison to other variants.     

SIMD correlator library for GNSS software receivers

Software receivers have had a discernable impact on the GNSS research community. Often such receivers are implemented in a compiled programming language, such as C or C++. A software receiver must emulate the digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms executed on dedicated hardware in a traditional receiver. The DSP algorithms, most notably correlation, have a high computational cost; this burden precludes many software receivers from running in real time. However, the computational cost can be lessened by utilizing single instruction multiple data (SIMD) operations found on modern ×86 processors. The following demonstrates how C/C++ compatible code can be written to directly utilize the SIMD instructions. First, an analysis is carried out to demonstrate why real time operation is not possible when using traditional C/C++ code is carried out. Secondly a tutorial outlines how to write and insert ×86 assembly, with SIMD operations, into C/C++ code. Performance gains achieved via SIMD operations are then demonstrated, and pseudo code outlines how SIMD operations can be employed to perform correlation. Finally, a C/C++ compatible SIMD enabled arithmetic library is added to the GPS Toolbox for use in software receivers.     

Hyperspectral anomaly detection within the signal subspace

This letter describes the extension of signal subspace processing (SSP) to the arena of anomaly detection. In particular, we develop an SSP-based, local anomaly detector that exploits the rich information available in the multiple bands of a hyperspectral (HS) image. This SSP approach is based on signal processing considerations, and its entire formulation reduces to a straightforward (and intuitively pleasing) geometric and algebraic development. We extend the basic SSP concepts to the HS anomaly detection problem, develop an SSP HS anomaly detector, and evaluate this algorithm using multiple HS data files.     

Software for validating parameters retrieved from satellite

A PC-based interactive software has been developed and presented here for validating geophysical data retrieved from satellite mounted sensors operating in visible, infrared and microwave frequencies. The program, coded in Visual Basic, is user interactive and runs on Windows-98 or higher platforms. The system prepares the database on a pre-selected Microsoft platform to enhance processing efficiency. Sub-setting option is also provided to reduce the processing time. Data retrieved from ‘Multi-channel Scanning Microwave Radiometer (MSMR) onboard the Indian satellites Oceansat-1 during 1999–2001 were validated using this software as a case study. The program has several added advantages over the conventional method of validation that involves strenuous efforts to incorporate subroutines to meet every minute requirement. Satellite-sea truth relationships on various space-time window combinations are determined and exhibited in matrix form to visualize the nature of correlation. User has the option to visualize the satellite-sea truth relationship through graphical representations before selecting optimum relationship for prediction.