The cold and wet year 1695 — a contemporary German account

After describing briefly some of the outstanding features of the uncommonly cold and wet year 1695, one of the coldest years of the Little Ice Age, an annotated translation is presented of a contemporary review of the unusual weather events of the year in Europe. The original was published in 1702 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, in vol. XIV of the seriesTheatrum Europaeum. The annotation relates to the historical events of the year that were substantially affected by the weather, events to which rather abstruse references are made in the aforementioned contemporary account. In addition to the fact that the contemporary review describes the uncommon weather conditions of 1695, it appears to be the first extended weather review in history.     

Stability functions based upon shear functions

The stability functions for momentum and heat under a Richardson number formulation are derived from the nondimensional shear functions under a Monin-Obukhov formulation. The Prandtl number is also derived as a function of the Richardson number. Previously, this has been done only in a limited sense. Because the Richardson number formulation is expressed in closed form, iterative techniques are no longer needed in numerical models that use Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. This time-saving approach is made possible by deriving expressions for the friction velocity and temperature in terms of the Richardson-number-dependent stability functions. In addition, the Richardson number approximation in the lowest layer is made to depend explicitly upon the surface roughness.     

Airborne radar and in-situ observations of a shallow stratus with drizzle

Observations were made of a shallow stratus of upslope origin using an aircraft equipped with insitu probes and with a vertically-pointing radar of 3-mm wavelength. A cloud layer of 300 m thickness was found below the inversion; an additional layer of 100 m thickness was located within the inversion. The coldest temperature within the cloud was -2°C and the cloud contained no ice particles. Drizzle drops up to 180 Am were present in both cloud layers.The observations reveal precipitation and air motion structures of approximately 1 km horizontal dimensions. The origin of this organization appears to be weak convection. In addition, mixing played an important role in forming the cloud droplet and drizzle drop size distributions.     

Some aspects of the succession and structure in the lower palaeozoic rocks of the southern uplands of scotland

Lower Palaeozoic successions in the Southern Uplands are much thicker than previously supposed and sedimentation may have lasted well into Ludlow times. Volcanic rocks are Arenig and Glenkiln in age and are often interbedded with greywackes and shales. Lapworth's concept of the structure as an anticlinorium and a synclinorium is rejected and it is suggested that the rocks have been folded into a series of compound monoclines which face north-westwards. These are probably cut by strike faults which bring up the older beds to the north.

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Zusammenfassung Die altpaläozoischen Schichtfolgen in den Südlichen Hochlanden sind viel mächtiger, als bisher angenommen wurde, und die Ablagerung kann bis ins Ludlow gereicht haben. Vulkanite haben Arenig- und Glenkiln-Alter; sie wechsellagern oft mit Grauwacken und Tonschiefern.Lapworths Vorstellung, der tektonische Bau sei ein Antiklinorium und ein Synklinorium, wird bestritten. Es wird angenommen, daß die Gesteine zu zusammengesetzten Monoklinen gefaltet wurden, deren steile Flügel nordwestwärts weisen. Sie werden wahrscheinlich durch streichende Verwerfungen zerschnitten, die die älteren Schichten im Norden herausheben.

     

Kornerupine in Mg-Al-rich gneisses from Namaqualand,South Africa: mineralogy and evidence for late-metamorphic fluid activity

Three kornerupine occurrences are reported in distinctive SiO₂-poor, MgO- and Al₂O₃-rich paragneisses from the Namaqualand Metamorphic Complex in South Africa. Kornerupine coexists stably with phlogopite, cordierite, orthopyroxene, gedrite, sapphirine, sillimanite and plagioclase and, in sapphirine-free rocks, with spinel and corundum. Tourmaline of a texturally older generation than kornerupine is commonly present in the same samples.Ten analysed kornerupines show a variation in total Fe as FeO from 1.8 to 10.9 weight per cent. B₂O₃ contents are estimated from x-ray data and a few spectrochemical analyses to range from 0.9 to 3.5 weight per cent. There is a strong inverse correlation between B³⁺ and Al³⁺. Total iron content has a strong and systematic effect on refractive index, colour and dispersion. Fe and Mg are systematically partitioned with the other minerals, and Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratios increase as follows: spinel 相似文献