A Discussion of IGS Solutions and Their Impact on Geodetic and Geophysical Applications

The International Association of Geodesy officially established the International GPS Service (IGS) on Janaury 1, 1994. Its prime objective is to provide support and a rerefence system for a wide variety of scientific and practical applications involving GPS. To fulfill its role the IGS also generates, in addition to its fundamental products (orbital/staion positions and consistent Earth orientation parameters), additional reference-system products providing the necessary infrastructure, standards, and means of calibrations for timing and various atmospheric applications of GPS. The generation and efficient application of IGS products and their impact on a number of positioning and atmospheric applications, including low earth orbit satellites, is reviewed and discussed. @ 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Effects of variable wind shear on the mesoscale circulation forced by slab‐symmetric diabatic heating

Abstract

We examine the response of stably stratified airflow to a slab‐symmetric diabatic forcing associated with condensation in long‐lasting precipitation bands. The steady‐state linearized Boussinesq equations are used to model the diagnostic relationship between the vertical motion field, the heating source and the ambient flow. The basic‐state flow is assumed to be horizontally uniform and non‐rotating, but the static stability and wind vary in the vertical. Linear theory shows that the speed of the along‐band wind component is unimportant for slab‐symmetric heating since it cannot contribute towards the advection of buoyancy or vertical motion.

For typical atmospheric stratification and a moving heating source associated with a cloud band, the Taylor‐Goldstein equation is solved numerically. The numerical results show that the cross‐band wind shear tilts the updraft core and broadens it. While the magnitude of the shear is increased, the circulation becomes stronger. The details of the wind profile are also important in determining the intensity and structure of the circulation. When the wind profile indicates a convex bulge (i.e. the low‐level shear is weaker than the upper‐level shear), the circulation becomes slightly weaker in comparison with the linear wind profile. Conversely, the circulation becomes stronger when the wind profile has a concave shape. Increasing the concave bulge tends to enhance the circulation but not in a monotonic fashion. This non‐monotonic relation between the vertical motion and the parabolic wind profile is interpreted in terms of kinetic energy changes of parcels that interchange their altitudes.     

Thermal metamorphism of primitive meteorites—IX. On the mechanism of trace element loss from Allende heated up to 1400° C

We report data for Ag, Bi, Cd, Co, Cs, Ga, In, Se, Te, Tl and Zn determined by neutron activation in Allende samples heated for one week at 100° increments in the 1000–1400°C range in a low pressure (initially 10^?5atmH₂) environment using an apparatus of novel design. In the extremes, concentrations of these trace elements—initially present at ppm-ppb levels—in unheated material are lowered even farther by factors of 10^?4–10^?5 over a broad temperature span. Loss of some elements above 1000°C extends trends evident below 1000°C; loss of others is even more extreme. On Arrhenius diagrams some elements exhibit but one apparent activation energy over the entire temperature span of loss while others exhibit 2 or 3, each operative in a particular temperature region. These discontinuities seem related to mineralogic/petrologic alteration and probably reflect differences in diffusion mechanism rather than siting differences. The extension of previous experiments into the temperature regime postulated for chondritic differentiation should lead to a better understanding of the evolution of meteoritic parent bodies.     

Deep structure and kinematics of the Northern Calcareous Alps (TRANSALP Profile)

The Northern Calcareous Alps (NCA) of southern Bavaria and northern Tyrol constitute a carbonate-dominated polyphase fold-thrust wedge; together with its Grauwacken Zone Basement, it is the northernmost part of the far-travelled Upper Austroalpine thrust complex of the Eastern Alps. The present geometry developed in several kinematic stages. Jurassic extensional faults that affected large parts of the NCA and their basement originated when the main part of the NCA was still located southeast of the Central Alpine Ötztal-Silvretta complex. These faults and related facies transitions influenced the later style of detachment of the NCA thrust sheets. Mid to Late Cretaceous detachment, thrust-sheet stacking and motion over the Central Alpine complex are registered in clastic deposits of syntectonic basins. The latest Cretaceous to Cenozoic NNE- to N-directed motion of the NCA towards Europe in front of the Central Alpine complex created another set of significant contraction structures, which at depth overprinted all previous structures. During Cretaceous to Cenozoic deformation, the NCA experienced about 80 km of shortening, i.e., about 73% along the TRANSALP Profile. The European basement and autochthonous Mesozoic cover beneath the allochthonous NCA thrust sheets and flysch complexes seem to have remained relatively undeformed.     

Die Einwirkung des Windes auf den mittleren Wasserstand der Deutschen Bucht vom 15. Februar bis 6. März 1951

Zusammenfassung Aus den Wasserstandsaufzeichnungen von zwölf Schwimmer-Schreibpegeln und sechs Hochseepegeln im Gebiet der inneren Deutschen Bucht wurden durch Eliminierung des Gezeitenanteils Windstaukurven bestimmt. Der Verlauf der Kurven wurde mit der Entwicklung des Windes über der mittleren und südlichen Nordsee verglichen und teilweise in topographischen Karten dargestellt, die von sechs zu sechs Stunden die Lage des mittleren Wasserstandes in der Deutschen Bucht an Hand von Linien gleichen Windstaus enthalten. Die Wirkung auflandiger und ablandiger Winde sowie des Luftdrucks wird besprochen. Die Ergebnisse werden mit den Untersuchungen anderer Autoren verglichen.

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The wind's effect on the mean water level in the German Bight as observed between February 15th and March 6th, 1951

Summary By eliminating the tidal portions from the records of twelve self recording tide gauges and six high sea tide gauges in the inner German Bight curves of the wind produced disturbance of the water level were found. The curves were compared with the development of the wind in the central and southern parts of the North Sea. Proceeding from the curves bearing on the periods from 17th to 23rd February and from 2nd to 5th March, 1951, topographical charts for every six hours were plotted on which the mean water level in the German Bight is represented by co-disturbance lines. The effects of on-shore and off-shore winds as well as the influence of atmospheric pressure are discussed and the results are compared with the investigations of other authors.

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Effet du vent sur le niveau moyen de la mer devant les côtes allemandes de la mer du Nord (du golfe Allemand) d'après les observations du 15 février au 6 mars 1951

Résumé En éliminant l'effet de la marée contenu dans les enregistrements de douze marégraphes enregistreurs et de six marégraphes plongeurs installés à l'intérieur du golfe Allemand on obtient les courbes de la montée du niveau de la mer due à la force du vent. Ces courbes sont comparées avec le développement du vent dans la zone centrale et la zone méridionale de la mer du Nord, et partant des courbes relatives à la période du 17 au 23 février et celle du 2 au 5 mars 1951, on a établi des cartes topographiques du niveau de la mer dans le golfe Allemand pour toutes les six heures à l'aide de lignes d'égale montée du niveau due à la force du vent. L'effet des vents de mer et celui des vents de terre ainsi que l'influence de la pression atmosphérique sont discutés. Les résultats de ce travail sont comparés avec les recherches faites par d'autres auteurs.

     

Nachweis einer fortschreitenden Welle in der südlichen Nordsee

Zusammenfassung Am 4. November 1957 wurde an den deutschen und niederländischen Küsten der Nordsee eine Störung des Gezeitenverlaufes beobachtet. Trotz eines Sturmes aus ablandiger Richtung wurde der mittlere Wasserstand bis zu mehreren Metern erhöht. Eine Analyse der Wasserstandsbeobachtungen von vierzehn Stationen ergab, daß es sich um eine fortschreitende Welle handelte, die sich im Seegebiet der südwestlichen Nordsee gebildet hatte. Es wird die Entstehung dieser Welle untersucht. Sie wird erklärt 1. aus ungewöhnlich stark ausgeprägten Luftdruckschwankungen im Küstengebiet Südostenglands und 2. aus dem besonderen Windfeld im Bereich eines Tiefdrucktroges über der südwestlichen Nordsee. Die beobachteten Durchgangszeiten der Welle stimmen mit den berechneten Werten überein; auch die beobachteten Amplituden lassen sich größenordnungsmäßig erklären. Ein Parallelfall vom 13./14. Dezember 1956 weist schließlich auf die Ähnlichkeit der Erscheinung mit den an der englischen Ostküste häufiger beobachtetenexternal surges hin, die als fortschreitende Wellen vom Atlantischen Ozean her in die Nordsee vordringen.

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Verification of a progressive wave in the southern North Sea

Summary On November 4, 1957, a disturbance of the tide was observed on the German and Netherlandish North Sea coasts. Although a storm associated with offshore winds was dominating, the water rose up to several meters above mean sea level. The analysis of sea level observations from 14 stations showed that the rise of water was due to a progressive wave that had been produced in the sea region of the southwestern North Sea. The origin of the progressive wave is the subject of the present investigations. Its occurrence is attributed firstly to atmospheric pressure variations of extraordinary intensity over the southeastern coastal area of England, secondly to a particular wind field in the neighbourhood of a trough of low pressure over the southwestern North Sea. The observed times of passage of the progressive wave correspond to the calculated values; the order of magnitude of the observed amplitudes, too, allows a satisfactory interpretation. A parallel case occurring on December 13/14, 1956 reveals the resemblance of the progressive wave to the phenomenon of external surges, frequently observed on the east coast of England; taking its origin as a progressive wave in the Atlantic Ocean, it penetrates into the North Sea.

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Preuve de la présence d'une onde progressive dans la région sud de la mer du Nord

Résumé Le 4 novembre 1957, on observa une perturbation de la marée sur la côte allemande et sur la côte néerlandaise. Bien qu'une tempête, associée aux vents de terre, dominât, la surface de la mer atteignit une hauteur supérieure au niveau moyen de la mer de plusieurs mètres. Une analyse basée sur des observations du niveau de la merde 14 stations révéla qu'il s'agit d'une onde progressive originaire de la région sud-ouest de la mer du Nord. La génération de cette onde est le sujet des recherches actuelles. Sa formation est ramenée 1⁰ aux variations extraordinairement prononcées de pression atmosphérique au-dessus du littoral sud-est de l'Angleterre, et 2⁰ au champ particulier du vent au voisinage d'un couloir de basse pression au-dessus de la région sud-ouest de la mer du Nord. Les observations des heures de passage de l'onde progressive s'accordent avec les valeurs calculées; de même, l'ordre de grandeur des amplitudes observées permet une interprétation satisfaisante. Un cas analogue, survenu le 13/14 décembre 1956, révéla enfin la ressemblance de l'onde progressive avec le phénomène des ondes externes («external surges») observées fréquemment sur la côte est de l'Angleterre; ce type d'onde tire son origine dans l'Océan Atlantique pour pénétrer dans la mer du Nord.

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Dank. Diese Untersuchung wurde ermöglicht, weil verschiedene Dienststellen entgegenkommenderweise Beobachtungsmaterial zur Verfügung stellten: Die Wasser- und Schifffahrtsämter Emden, Wilhelmshaven, Bremerhaven, Cuxhaven und Tönning sowie die Marschenbauämter Heide und Husum stellten ihre Pegelaufzeichnungen zur Verfügung, der Rijkswaterstaat, 's-Gravenhage, die der niederländischen Stationen. Die englischen und niederländischen Luftdruckbeobachtungen wurden mir freundlicherweise von Mr. Virgo, Chief Meteorological Officer, Headquarters Second ATAF, und Herrn M. P. H. Weenink, De Bilt, vermittelt. Das Seewetteramt Hamburg des Deutschen Wetterdienstes stellte wiederum, wie schon bei früheren Untersuchungen, bereitwillig die Arbeitswetterkarten zur Einsicht zur Verfügung. Schließlich sei dankend hervorgehoben, daß die im internationalen Wetterfernschreibnetz verbreiteten Wasserstandsbeobachtungen des englischen Sturmflutwarndienstes die Untersuchung wesentlich gefördert haben.