Some remarks on the thermodynamics of cyclones and anticyclones

Summary A quantitative theory of steady-state cyclones and anticyclones is based on a thermodynamic cycle, in which the surface frictional flow of air towards low pressure is compensated by an outflow aloft. It is shown that such a steady-state flow can only be sustained by a distribution of heat sources and sinks, depending on the surface windfield, the frictional drag, and the height of the return flow. When the two latter quantities are specified the steady-state surface wind- and pressure-pattern can be inferred from the disposition of heat sources and sinks in the atmosphere.Given the vertical profile of temperature and humidity it is possible to estimate the net heat added to or subtracted from different levels in the atmosphere by radiation processes. If, in addition, the balance between precipitation and evaporation is known, the distribution of sources and sinks in the free atmosphere may be determined, and this procedure may be made largely routine with such aids as the radiation chart. Hence it is possible to infer the structure, intensity and size of an equilibrium surface pressure-field from the computed disposition of sources and sinks in the atmosphere. In the future it should be possible to carry through such an analysis as part of routine forecasting procedure. It is shown that the surface pressure contrast in such monsoonal systems as the Siberian Winter High is of the order called for by the thermodynamic theory. The sustaining source and sink intensities needed for cyclones and anticyclones of average size and pressure-contrast are of the order of those occurring in nature.Cyclones and anticyclones are conveniently classified according to the nature of the sustaining sources or sinks. In particular, shallow systems, cold highs and warm lows are associated with low level sinks or sources, while systems of great vertical extent, warm highs and cold lows, are associated with sinks and sources at high level.

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Zusammenfassung Eine quantitative Theorie stationärer Zyklonen und Antizyklonen wird auf einen thermodynamischen Kreisprozeß, basiert, in dem die reibungsbedingte Luftströmung an der Erdoberfläche gegen das Tiefdruckzentrum durch ein Abfließen in der Höhe kompensiert wird. Es wird gezeigt, daß eine solche stationäre Strömung nur durch eine Verteilung von Wärmequellen und Sinkstellen aufrecht erhalten werden kann, die durch das Windfeld am Boden, die Reibungsverzögerung und die Höhe des Rückkehrstromes bedingt ist. Wenn die zwei letztgenannten Größen bestimmt sind, kann aus der Verteilung der Wärmequellen und Sinkstellen in der Atmosphäre auf das Wind- und Druckfeld des stationären Zustandes am Boden geschlossen werden.Aus dem Vertikalprofil von Temperatur und Feuchtigkeit ist es möglich, den durch Strahlungsvorgänge in verschiedenen Höhen erzeugten Wärmeüberschuß oder-verlust abzuschätzen. Wenn außerdem die Bilanz zwischen Niederschlag und Verdunstung bekannt ist, kann auch die Verteilung der Quellen und Sinkstellen in der Atmosphäre bestimmt werden und dieses Verfahren kann auf Grund von Strahlungskarten Eingang in die tägliche Praxis finden. Damit ist es möglich, aus der berechneten Verteilung von Quellen und Sinkstellen Schlüsse auf die Struktur, die Intensität und die Ausdehnung eines im Gleichgewicht befindlichen Druckfeldes zu ziehen. In Zukunft mag sich auch die Möglichkeit ergeben, eine solche Analyse als Teil des täglichen Wetterdienstes durchzuführen.Es wird gezeigt, daß die Druckunterschiede am Boden in solchen Monsunsystemen wie dem sibirischen Winterhoch von der gleichen Größenordnung sind, wie sie sich aus der thermodynamischen Theorie voraussagen lassen. Die Intensität von Quellen und Sinkstellen, die in der freien Atmosphäre auftreten, hat die richtige Größe, um die Aufrechterhaltung von Zyklonen und Antizyklonen mit den Dimensionen und Druckunterschieden zu erklären, wie sie in der Natur beobachtet werden.Zyklonen und Antizyklonen werden praktischerweise auf Grund der Beschaffenheit der Quellen oder Sinkstellen eingeteilt, die sie aufrecht erhalten. Im speziellen sind seichte Systeme, wie Kältehoch und Wärmetief, mit Quellen oder Sinkstellen im tieferen Niveau verknüpft, während Systeme mit großer Vertikalerstreckung, wie Wärmehoch und Kältetief, mit Quellen oder Sinkstellen in größerer Höhe verbunden sind.

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Résumé On développe une théorie quantitative des dépressions et anticyclones stationnaires sur la base d'un cycle thermodynamique fermé dans lequel le courant soumis au frottement et dirigé vers le centre dépressionnaire est compensé par un écoulement divergent en altitude. On montre qu'un tel système stationnaire ne peut se maintenir que par une répartition des sources et des puits de chaleur conditionnée par le champ de vent au sol, le retard dû au frottement et l'altitude du courant de retour. Si les deux dernières grandeurs sont déterminées, on peut connaître le champ de vent et de pression de l'état stationnaire au sol à partir de la répartition des sources chaudes et des puits dans l'atmosphère.Grâce au profil vertical de température et d'humidité, il est possible d'évaluer l'excès ou le défaut de chaleur produits par les processus radiatifs à différents niveaux. Si en outre le bilan entre les précipitations et l'évaporation est connu, on peut aussi déterminer la distribution des sources et des puits dans l'atmosphère et ce procédé pourra entrer dans le travail de routine à l'aide de cartes de rayonnement. Ainsi il est possible, à partir de la distribution calculée des sources et des puits, de tirer des conclusions sur la structure, l'intensité et l'étendue d'un champ de pression en équilibre. On peut envisager dans l'avenir la possibilité d'adjoindre une telle analyse à la prévision journalière du temps.On montre que les différences de pression au sol dans des systèmes de mousson tels que celui de l'anticyclone hivernal sibérien sont de l'ordre de grandeur prévu par la théorie thermodynamique. L'intensité des sources et des puits qui apparaissent dans l'atmosphère libre a la valeur voulue pour entretenir les dépressions et les anticyclones avec les dimensions et les différences de pression que l'on observe dans la nature.On peut classer les dépressions et les anticyclones d'une manière pratique d'après la nature des sources et des puits qui les entretiennent. En particulier, des systèmes de peu d'épaisseur comme des anticyclones froids et des dépressions chaudes sont liés à des sources et des puits situés à basse altitude; par contre des systèmes de grande ampleur verticale comme des anticyclones chauds et des dépressions froides sont liés à des sources ou des puits à haute altitude.

     

A method for detecting the diffusion of silver iodide particles in the atmosphere

Summary A technique is described which allows the study of the concentration of silver-iodide particles produced by a ground generator. It consists of marking these particles with Iodine 131, then filtering the air at the required places with air-borne filters. The iodine is extracted chemically, concentrated in a very small silver iodide disc which is then placed upon a nulcear emulsion. After two weeks the activity is measured by electron track counting. Limitations of the method are given.The paper has been published in extenso in the «Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik and Physik» (ZAMP), XIa, p. 375, 1958.     

Phase equilibria modelling and LASS monazite petrochronology: P–T–t constraints on the evolution of the Priest River core complex,northern Idaho

Phase equilibria modelling, laser‐ablation split‐stream (LASS)‐ICP‐MS petrochronology and garnet trace‐element geochemistry are integrated to constrain the P–T–t history of the footwall of the Priest River metamorphic core complex, northern Idaho. Metapelitic, migmatitic gneisses of the Hauser Lake Gneiss contain the peak assemblage garnet + sillimanite + biotite ± muscovite + plagioclase + K‐feldspar ± rutile ± ilmenite + quartz. Interpreted P–T paths predict maximum pressures and peak metamorphic temperatures of ~9.6–10.3 kbar and ~785–790 °C. Monazite and xenotime ²⁰⁸Pb/²³²Th dates from porphyroblast inclusions indicate that metamorphism occurred at c. 74–54 Ma. Dates from HREE‐depleted monazite formed during prograde growth constrain peak metamorphism at c. 64 Ma near the centre of the complex, while dates from HREE‐enriched monazite constrain the timing of garnet breakdown during near‐isothermal decompression at c. 60–57 Ma. Near‐isothermal decompression to ~5.0–4.4 kbar was followed by cooling and further decompression. The youngest, HREE‐enriched monazite records leucosome crystallization at mid‐crustal levels c. 54–44 Ma. The northernmost sample records regional metamorphism during the emplacement of the Selkirk igneous complex (c. 94–81 Ma), Cretaceous–Tertiary metamorphism and limited Eocene exhumation. Similarities between the Priest River complex and other complexes of the northern North American Cordillera suggest shared regional metamorphic and exhumation histories; however, in contrast to complexes to the north, the Priest River contains less partial melt and no evidence for diapiric exhumation. Improved constraints on metamorphism, deformation, anatexis and exhumation provide greater insight into the initiation and evolution of metamorphic core complexes in the northern Cordillera, and in similar tectonic settings elsewhere.     

On the Importance of Geolithological Features for the Estimate of the Site Response: The Case of Catania Metropolitan Area (Italy)

The evaluation of seismic site response in the urban area of Catania was tackled by selecting test areas having peculiar lithological and structural features, potentially favourable to large local amplifications of ground motion. The two selected areas are located in the historical downtown and in the northern part of Catania where the presence of a fault is evident. Site response was evaluated using spectral ratio technique taking the horizontal- to-vertical component ratio of ambient noise. Inferences from microtremor measurements are compared with results from synthetic accelerograms and response spectra computed at all drillings available for this area. Such method is particularly suitable in urban areas where the nature of the outcropping geological units is masked by city growth and anthropic intervention on the surface geology. The microtremor H/V spectral ratios evaluated at soft sites located within the downtown profile tend to be smaller than that usually reported in the literature for such soils. A tendency for amplifications to peaks near 2 Hz is observed only in some sites located on recent alluvial deposits. Evidences for amplifications of site effects (frequency range 4–8 Hz) were observed in the sampling sites located on the fault, with a rapid decrease of spectral amplitude just a few tenths of metres away from the discontinuity. Numerical simulations evidenced the importance of geolithological features at depth levels even greater than 20–30 m. Besides this, the results strongly confirm the importance of the subsurface geological conditions, in the estimate of seismic hazard at urban scale.     

Comparison of Different Techniques of Tilt Testing and Basic Friction Angle Variability Assessment

A relevant parameter for estimating discontinuity shear strength is the basic friction angle, usually derived from different types of tilt tests. However, the tilt tests described in the literature produce varying basic friction angle values. From a large number of different types of tilt tests on different kinds of rocks, it was possible to conclude that the mechanisms of sliding along cylinder generatrixes and planar surfaces are quite different, and that tests based on sliding along generatrixes are not appropriate for determining reliable basic friction angle values for discontinuity planes. Tests on small specimens are also not recommended, for geometry reasons and because ensuring reliable stress conditions is difficult. To quantify the natural variability in tilt testing, large specimens of the same granite were tested. The results revealed coefficients of variation for the basic friction angle in the range of 5–10?%, a variability which is no greater than that found for other rock mechanics parameters. This observation enables to forward some recommendations concerning the appropriate number of tests needed to obtain reliable results.     

Morphology and structure of the Galapagos Rise

Geophysical data collected on three U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office cruises to the Galapagos Rise are presented. These data allow definition of the morphology and structure of the Galapagos Rise.A postulated “hot spot” beneath the Galapagos platform is suggested as the cause of: (1) decreased seismicity along the spreading center for a 400 km E—W distance from the islands; (2) distinctive petro-chemistry of tholeiites from the islands and adjacent oceanic crust generated by the Galapagos Rise; (3) high-amplitude magnetic anomalies in a 1,000 km E—W band including and just north of the Galapagos platform; and (4) morphologic shape and the regionally elevated sea floor of the Galapagos Rise as it approaches the insular platform.     

A study of the subarctic boundary region in the Western North Pacific

During autumn 1968 an oceanographic investigation was conducted in the region of the Subarctic boundary between 155°E and 180°. The geostrophic flow of the upper 500 m was remarkably similar in direction; hence the salinity-minimum, Intermediate water must have the same path of flow as water at the surface. A water mass analysis revealed a decrease in the percentage of Subarctic water to the south and east, plus an increase in the homogeneity of water to the east, which supports Reid's conclusions that the salinity minimum results mainly from lateral mixing in the pycnocline in this region. Salinity at the minimum increases toward the south and east, and the density at this level also increases slightly from the western to the central Pacific, perhaps as a result of unequal vertical mixing above and below the minimum.     

A model of ocean current flow and drifter motion

A minor generalization of the theory of random walk is used as a basis for a model of ocean current flow. The model is then applied in a computer simulation of drifter motion. The results of simulation indicate that the geometry of a coastline can have significant impact on the distribution of drifter landings.     

Cyclicity in the Main and Upper Zones of the Bushveld Complex, South Africa: Crystallization from a Zoned Magma Sheet

The major element composition of plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine,and magnetite, and whole-rock ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr data are presented forthe uppermost 2·1 km of the layered mafic rocks (upperMain Zone and Upper Zone) at Bierkraal in the western BushveldComplex. Initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios are near-constant (0·7073± 0·0001) for 24 samples and imply crystallizationfrom a homogeneous magma sheet without major magma rechargeor assimilation. The 2125 m thick section investigated in drillcore comprises 26 magnetitite and six nelsonite (magnetite–ilmenite–apatite)layers and changes up-section from gabbronorite (An₇₂ plagioclase;Mg# 74 clinopyroxene) to magnetite–ilmenite–apatite–fayaliteferrodiorite (An₄₃; Mg# 5 clinopyroxene; Fo₁ olivine). The overallfractionation trend is, however, interrupted by reversals characterizedby higher An% of plagioclase, higher Mg# of pyroxene and olivine,and higher V₂O₅ of magnetite. In the upper half of the successionthere is also the intermittent presence of cumulus olivine andapatite. These reversals in normal fractionation trends definethe bases of at least nine major cycles. We have calculateda plausible composition for the magma from which this entiresuccession formed. Forward fractional crystallization modelingof this composition predicts an initial increase in total iron,near-constant SiO₂ and an increasing density of the residualmagma before magnetite crystallizes. After magnetite beginsto crystallize the residual magma shows a near-constant totaliron, an increase in SiO₂ and decrease in density. We explainthe observed cyclicity by bottom crystallization. Initiallymagma stratification developed during crystallization of thebasal gabbronorites. Once magnetite began to crystallize, periodicdensity inversion led to mixing with the overlying magma layer,producing mineralogical breaks between fractionation cycles.The magnetitite and nelsonite layers mainly occur within fractionationcycles, not at their bases. In at least two cases, crystallizationof thick magnetitite layers may have lowered the density ofthe basal layer of melt dramatically, and triggered the proposeddensity inversion, resulting in close, but not perfect, coincidenceof mineralogical breaks and packages of magnetitite layers. KEY WORDS: layered intrusion; mineral chemistry; isotopes; magma; convection; differentiation     

Changes in the water regime of the caspian sea

The article deals with issues of structure and dynamics of the Caspian Sea water balance. On the base of historical, paleogeomorphological and other data the evolution history of the Caspian Sea and its basin has been observed for different time intervals down to 400 thous. years ago. Presented are computerized data on water balance components in the current centenary obtained from instrumental observations, revealed are causes of the sea-level fluctuations within that time interval and anthropogenic factor contribution to this process. Based on the analysis of this material, an attempt has been undertaken to present a scenarion of a possible sea-level position of the Caspian Sea with the expected versions of climatic changes at the end of the XX and beginning of the XXI centuries.