The relation between rigorous and Helmert’s definitions of orthometric heights

Following our earlier definition of the rigorous orthometric height [J Geod 79(1-3):82–92 (2005)] we present the derivation and calculation of the differences between this and the Helmert orthometric height, which is embedded in the vertical datums used in numerous countries. By way of comparison, we also consider Mader and Niethammer’s refinements to the Helmert orthometric height. For a profile across the Canadian Rocky Mountains (maximum height of ~2,800 m), the rigorous correction to Helmert’s height reaches ~13 cm, whereas the Mader and Niethammer corrections only reach ~3 cm. The discrepancy is due mostly to the rigorous correction’s consideration of the geoid-generated gravity disturbance. We also point out that several of the terms derived here are the same as those used in regional gravimetric geoid models, thus simplifying their implementation. This will enable those who currently use Helmert orthometric heights to upgrade them to a more rigorous height system based on the Earth’s gravity field and one that is more compatible with a regional geoid model.     

川藏公路拉月滑坡的块状破坏特征

拉月滑坡位于东久河左岸，为典型的高位岩质滑坡。1967—08—29拉月一带山体突然发生特大型滑坡，体积超过千万立方米，是川藏公路线上著名的“拉月大塌方”灾害。文章应用块状岩体稳定性分析方法，对同结构岩石块体相互嵌合、形成具不同稳定状况的的岩体结构、控制了滑坡的发生的特点进行了分析，证明该方法判别岩质滑坡的稳定性是非常有效的。岩质滑坡在西藏与西南地区都十分普遍，因此，通过对拉月滑坡块状破坏过程的分析，对其它岩质滑坡的稳定性判别具有很好的借鉴作用。     

An introduction to the classification of the physiognomic landscape types: methodology and results of testing in the area of Kazimierz Landscape Park (Poland)

The publication of the European Landscape Convention (2000) had a stimulating effect on the development of both new systems of landscape classification and new methods of their evaluation and mapping. As an example, a new classification of physiognomic landscape types was developed in Poland in 2014. The objectives of the paper are to (1) popularize, on the international scale, the classification of physiognomic landscape types in a new, improved version, (2) present the original method of physiognomic landscape types mapping with the use of the system of basic landscape units, and (3) present the results of testing of the method in the area of the Kazimierz Landscape Park, Poland. In the area of the Kazimierz Landscape Park, 491 basic landscape units were delimited, within which, on the basis of the leading traits of land relief and cover forms, the physiognomic landscape types were identified. Maps of this type can be important tools in implementing the recommendations of the European Landscape Convention. The total number of physiognomic landscape types identified within a specific area can be one of the key indicators of landscape diversity.     

Evaluating the fitness for use of spatial data sets to promote quality in ecological assessment and monitoring

This article proposes and illustrates a practical methodological framework to evaluate the fitness for use of spatial data sets for environmental and ecological applications, focusing on user requirements for specified application contexts. The methodology is based on the use of metadata to analyze similarity between the data characteristics and the user’s needs or expectations for several quality indicators. Additionally, the concept of ‘critical factors’ is introduced in this framework, allowing users to define which quality indicators have greater importance given their own requirements or expectations and the specified application contexts. The proposed methodology further allows integrating and interconnecting the spatial data quality (SDQ) evaluation methodology with metadata geoportals in WebGIS platforms, facilitating its operation by users from non-spatial disciplines and with often limited expertise on this subject. Examples of the evaluation of fitness for use for specific application contexts within the project BIO_SOS (‘Biodiversity Multi-SOurce Monitoring System: From Space To Species’ FP7 project) are presented. By providing a prompt and straightforward evaluation tool, the proposed methodology can encourage the implementation of SDQ evaluation routines in ecological assessment and monitoring programs, promoting a more adequate use of geospatial data and ultimately contributing to well-supported policy and management decisions.     

Documentary Evidence of an Economic Character as a Source for the Study of Meteorological and Hydrological Extremes and their Impacts on Human Activities

This paper deals with documentary evidence of an economic character as a proxy for direct study of meteorological and hydrological extremes. Taxation records and reports of those who administrated domains and estates are described with respect to information about meteorological and hydrological extremes. Based on data from eight domains or estates from Moravia (in the Czech Republic), frequency series of floods and convective storms (including hailstorms) were developed for the period 1650–1849. One example of disastrous weather, which took place on 10 August 1694 in the Pern?tejn domain, is used to demonstrate the potential for such studies of the intensity of extremes and their impact on human activities. The importance of economic evidence in the instrumental period is shown through tax rebate data contingent upon hailstorm damage in Moravia (1896–1906). The benefits of employing documentary economic evidence for historical climatology and the study of the impact of meteorological and hydrological extremes on human activities are discussed.     

Rječina River sediments (Croatia): from captured spring to polluted prodelta

Surface sediments (fraction <63 μm) from the source to the mouth of the Rječina, short (18.3 km) karst allogenic river in Croatia, which is an important source of drinking water, were studied to investigate their mineral (by XRD) and chemical (by ICP-MS) composition to check possible anthropogenic influence at the lower course due to paper industry and mills, and in the prodelta area from untreated municipal sewage and the large harbor of Rijeka town. In all analyzed sediment samples and in the sandstone source, rock quartz is a major mineral, while feldspar and mica group minerals are less abundant. Chlorite is a minor or trace mineral in all samples. Calcite and dolomite are abundant in the river prodelta, reflecting changes in bedrock lithology from flysch to carbonates. In river sediments, Fe is the most abundantly analyzed element, while Ca is the most abundant in prodelta sediments. Concentrations of Al, Mn, Ni, Cr, Co, La and Nd decrease downstream, while Mg, S, Na, B, Pb, Zn, As, Sn, U, Mo, Hg and Ag have relatively higher concentration in prodelta sediments. The results are compared with sediments of other rivers in the area: Raša, Rižana and Dragonja, as well as with those of the Rosandra Creek (Italy). Sediments in the Raša River showed similar behavior as those in the Rječina, as the highest concentration of metals was found in the restricted upper part of the estuary, characterized by rapid deposition of clay particles and terrestrial sedimentary organic matter. The comparison also showed that the most contaminated were the sediments from the Rižana, followed by those from the Rječina and Rosandra Creek, which had similar results. Among the studied elements, As was present in all sediment samples at concentrations >6 ppm that might have the lowest toxic effects. At the lower Rječina and in prodelta sediments, Pb was also present at slightly elevated concentrations (>31 ppm) that could cause such effects. Concentrations of Zn in the prodelta correspond to those occurring in moderately polluted sediments (90–200 ppm). In the prodelta sediments, Hg is slightly below toxicity threshold (1 ppm), while Ag is present at toxicity threshold (0.5 ppm) or close to it. Rječina River could act as a good illustrative example for behavior of toxic metals in allogenic karstic rivers, in which accumulation of anthropogenically introduced pollutants usually occurs in their estuaries, as a result of transport and deposition of fine particles.     

Responses of microorganisms and enzymes to soil contamination with metazachlor

A greenhouse pot experiment was conducted at the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, with the aim of describing the influence of metazachlor on counts and biodiversity of soil microorganisms, soil enzymatic activity, physicochemical properties of soil and yield of spring oilseed rape. The first experimental factor was soil contamination with increasing rates of metazachlor: 0 (soil without the herbicide), 0.333 (recommended by the manufacturer), 6.666, 13.332, 26.665, 53.328, 106.656 and 213.312 mg kg^?1 dm of soil, while the second factor comprised two dates of determination: 30 and 60 days after starting the experiment. The tested herbicide had an adverse effect on reproduction of all analyzed microorganisms: oligotrophic bacteria and their endospore forms, Azotobacter spp. bacteria, organotrophic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. The values of the colony development and eco-physiological diversity indices decreased under the influence of excessive doses of the herbicide. Also, significant fluctuation in the enzymatic activity of soil was observed in response to the higher doses of metazachlor and depending on the date of determinations. The herbicide had an invariably negative influence on the activity of soil enzymes, causing the inhibition of dehydrogenases, catalase, urease, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, arylsulfatase and β-glucosidase. The physicochemical status of soil depended significantly on the degree of soil contamination with the herbicide, same as the yield of spring oilseed rape.     

Hydrogeochemical stratification of the unconfined Samobor aquifer (Zagreb,Croatia)

In the western part of the city of Zagreb, Croatia, hydrogeochemical and isotopic investigations of the Samobor aquifer were carried out with the aim of determining the differences in hydrogeochemical characteristics at increasing aquifer depths. The aquifer comprises 40-m thick gravelly–sandy deposits, with lenses and interlayers of silt and clay. The analyses have proven that with increasing aquifer depth, there are decreases in groundwater temperature and the values of electrical conductivity and increases in the sodium, iron and manganese concentrations. The δ¹³C distribution shows an evident increase in biogenic carbon concentrations with increasing aquifer depth. The measured specific ¹⁴C activities showed that the deeper part of the aquifer is characterized by slow water exchange, while the shallower part is influenced by current recharge, although the pumping wells located on the well-field downstream penetrate the aquifer fully. A direct exchange of water from the Sava River and groundwater occurs in the near vicinity of the river. This exchange weakens further away, while the difference in hydrogeochemical characteristics between the Sava River water and groundwater increases.     

Applying size segregation to relate the surrounding aerosol pollution to its source

Size segregated sampling of aerosol particles at the coal-fired power station Šoštanj, Slovenia was performed by a newly developed system. In addition, simultaneous sampling of particles was performed at two locations, Velenje and Veliki vrh, chosen on the basis of long term monitoring of SO₂ in the influential area of power plant. The signature of the power plant (e.g. characteristic size distributions of some typical trace elements) was identified. For elements, like As, Mo, Cd and Ga, which are typical for coal combustion, the highest concentrations were observed in the size range between 1 and 4 μm. For Se and sometimes for Ga two modes were identified, first between 0.1 and 0.5 μm and second between 1 and 4 μm. Ratios between the average concentrations of selected elements in fine and coarse particles collected at Veliki vrh (the most influenced location) and Velenje (usually not influenced by the thermo power station) were significantly higher than 1 in the case of Mo and Se for coarse and fine size range, while for As the ratio was higher than 1 for the coarse fraction. Consequently, Mo, Se and As were found as the most important tracers for the emissions from the investigated source. On the basis of the ratios between the concentrations of elements measured in particles at low and high SO₂ concentrations at Veliki vrh, Cd was shown to be a typical tracer as well. Our results definitely showed that size segregated measurements of particles at the source and in the influenced area give more precise information on the influence of source to the surrounding region. It was found that patterns of size distributions for typical trace elements observed at the source are found also in the influenced area, i.e. Veliki vrh.     

Detection and quantification of local anthropogenic and regional climatic transient signals in temperature logs from Czechia and Slovenia

The paper reports on detection and quantification of the impact of local anthropogenic structures and regional climatic changes on subsurface temperature field. The analyzed temperature records were obtained by temperature monitoring in a borehole in Prague-Spo?ilov (Czechia) and by repeated logging of a borehole in ?empeter (Slovenia). The observed data were compared with temperatures yielded by mathematical 3D time-variable geothermal models of the boreholes’ sites with the aim to decompose the observed transient component of the subsurface temperature into the part affected by construction of new buildings and other anthropogenic structures in surroundings of the boreholes and into the part affected by the ground surface temperature warming due to the surface air temperature rise. A direct human impact on the subsurface temperature warming was proved and contributions of individual anthropogenic structures to this change were evaluated. In the case of Spo?ilov, where the mean annual warming rate reached 0.034°C per year at the depth of 38.3?m during the period 1993–2008, it turned out that about half of the observed warming can be attributed to the air (ground) surface temperature change and half to the human activity on the surface in the immediate vicinity of the borehole. The situation is similar in ?empeter, where the effect of the recently built surface anthropogenic structures is detectable down to the depth of 80?m and the share of the anthropogenic signal on the non-stationary component of the observed subsurface temperature amounts to 30% at the depth of 50?m.