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991.
Francesco?BoselloEmail author Robert?J.?Nicholls Julie?Richards Roberto?Roson Richard?S.?J.?Tol 《Climatic change》2012,112(1):63-81
This paper uses two models to examine the direct and indirect costs of sea-level rise for Europe for a range of sea-level
rise scenarios for the 2020s and 2080s: (1) the DIVA model to estimate the physical impacts of sea-level rise and the direct
economic cost, including adaptation, and (2) the GTAP-EF model to assess the indirect economic implications. Without adaptation,
impacts are quite significant with a large land loss and increase in the incidence of coastal flooding. By the end of the
century Malta has the largest relative land loss at 12% of its total surface area, followed by Greece at 3.5% land loss. Economic
losses are however larger in Poland and Germany (483 and483 and 391 million, respectively). Coastal protection is very effective
in reducing these impacts and optimally undertaken leads to protection levels that are higher than 85% in the majority of
European states. While the direct economic impact of sea-level rise is always negative, the final impact on countries’ economic
performances estimated with the GTAP-EF model may be positive or negative. This is because factor substitution, international
trade, and changes in investment patterns interact with possible positive implications. The policy insights are (1) while
sea-level rise has negative and huge direct economic effects, overall effects on GDP are quite small (max −0.046% in Poland);
(2) the impact of sea-level rise is not confined to the coastal zone and sea-level rise indirectly affects landlocked countries
as well (Austria for instance loses −0.003% of its GDP); and (3) adaptation is crucial to keep the negative impacts of sea-level
rise at an acceptable level. 相似文献
992.
993.
Continental evaporites are deposits that originate from the evaporation of saline waters in the low areas of saline lakes from all continents, except Europe, and mainly consist of chloride, sulphate and potash minerals. In recent years, the discovery on the Martian surface of hydrated salt minerals, including sulphates and chlorides, interpreted as deriving from the desiccation of preexisting large bodies of water, such as lakes, has provided further convincing evidence of liquid water activity on the surface of Mars and, consequently, it has reinforced the plausibility of finding life. Because evaporites require short‐term aqueous processes for their formation, they can trap and preserve over geologic times a biological record made up of halophilic extremophiles—such as microalgae, bacteria, and their remains—that recent research on Earth has shown to be characterized by unexpectedly high biodiversity. This record may consist of varying types of fossils, including morphological fossils, chemofossils and biominerals. As a consequence, continental evaporite environments and their saline deposits are now a primary target for the near future astrobiology missions devoted to the search for fossil Martian life. Lacustrine evaporite deposits and minerals have, therefore, been identified as primary targets for the NASA–ESA joint programme of the Mars sample return, planned for the end of the current decade. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 相似文献