Studies of Plasma Dynamics in a Small Plasma Focus Operating in Hydrogen-Argon Mixtures

We report on experimental observations in PFP-I, a small 3.8 kJ plasma focus, which is operated in Hydrogen-Argon mixtures to investigate the effect of parameter modifications on the overall performance of the device. An extensive array of diagnostics is been used, which includes voltage and current probes in the external circuit, a novel small magnetic probes array located along the cathode rods, filtered PIN diodes located side and end on, and filtered multi-pinhole and slit-wire X-ray camera. Extended operating range from below 0.2 Torr upwards has been achieved. Hot spot formation has been investigated as a function of H₂-Ar mixing ratio. Hot spot sizes around 150 m in the soft X-ray region, have been inferred from the slit-wire measurements. Pin-hole time integrated X-ray pictures and time resolved PIN diode measurements have been used to determine characteristic hot-spot temperatures in the 350 to 450 eV range.     

Resilience and brittleness in the ALERTA RIO system: a field study about the decision-making of forecasters

Natural disasters, particularly those triggered by heavy rainfall, may cause major damage and death. However, if an accurate early warning is issued, the damage can be mitigated. In Latin America and Brazil, characteristics of socioeconomic development often lead to a disorderly growth of cities and, consequently, occupation and irregular construction in risk areas. Therefore, forecasts of heavy rainfall, as well as preventative and mitigatory actions based on meteorological data/alerts, are essential to saving lives and minimizing material loss. An event that would have benefited from such actions is that which occurred in the mountainous region of Rio de Janeiro in January 2011, when over 800 people lost their lives. This work describes the first research initiative on resilience engineering domain in systems to forecast heavy rains in Rio de Janeiro. The results indicate important sources of brittleness in the system that supports the work of meteorologists, mainly related to the technical and organizational framework, and suggests that the main source of resilience in dealing with critical situations is the tacit knowledge of experts.     

Separation of PP- and PS-wave reflected seismic data using two-dimensional finite offset common-reflection-surface traveltime approximation

Recently, the interest in PS-converted waves has increased for several applications, such as sub-basalt layer imaging, impedance estimates and amplitude-versus-offset analysis. In this study, we consider the problem of separation of PP- and PS-waves from pre-stacked multicomponent seismic data in two-dimensional isotropic medium. We aim to demonstrate that the finite-offset common-reflection-surface traveltime approximation is a good alternative for separating PP- and PS-converted waves in common-offset and common shot configurations by considering a two-dimensional isotropic medium. The five parameters of the finite-offset common-reflection-surface are firstly estimated through the inversion methodology called very fast simulated annealing, which estimates all parameters simultaneously. Next, the emergence angle, one of the inverted parameters, is used to build an analytical separation function of PP and PS reflection separation based on the wave polarization equations. Once the PP- and PS-converted waves were separated, the sections are stacked to increase the signal-to-noise ratio using the special curves derived from finite-offset common-reflection-surface approximation. We applied this methodology to a synthetic dataset from simple-layered to complex-structured media. The numerical results showed that the inverted parameters of the finite offset common-reflection-surface and the separation function yield good results for separating PP- and PS-converted waves in noisy common-offset and common shot gathers.     

A review of undulated sediment features on Mediterranean prodeltas: distinguishing sediment transport structures from sediment deformation

Most Mediterranean prodeltas show undulated sediment features on the foresets of their Holocene wedges. These features have been described all along the Mediterranean for the last 30 years and interpreted as either soft sediment deformation and incipient landsliding, and more recently, as sediment transport structures. We perform a review and detailed analysis of these undulated sediment features using ultrahigh-resolution seismic and bathymetric data as well as geotechnical information and hydrodynamic time series and hydrographic transects. In this study we show that the characteristics of the sediment undulations (configuration of the reflections down section and between adjacent undulations and overall morphologic characteristics) are incompatible with a genesis by sediment deformation alone and do not show evidence of sediment deformation in most cases. Various processes in the benthic boundary layer can be invoked to explain the variety of features observed in the numerous areas displaying sediment undulations.     

Olive tree phenology and climate variations in the Mediterranean area over the last two decades

The flowering characteristics of plant species of economic interest and the influence of climate on them are of great importance considering the implications for fruit setting and the final harvest: Olive is one of the typical species of the Mediterranean habitat. We have investigated the timing of olive full flowering during the anthesis period and flowering intensity over a period of 20 years (1990–2009), in three major cultivation areas of the Mediterranean basin: Italy, Spain and Tunisia. The importance of these characteristics from a bioclimatic point of view is considered. The biological behaviour was studied to determine its main relationships with temperature and water availability, considering also the different sub-periods and the bio-climatic variations during the study period. The flowering dates and pollen emissions show different behaviours for the Spanish monitoring area in comparison with the other two olive cultivation areas. In the Italian and Tunisian areas, the flowering period over the last decade has become earlier by about 5 and 7 days, respectively, in comparison to the previous decade. Moreover, pollen emissions have decreased in Perugia (Italy) and Zarzis (Tunisia) over the period of 2000–2009, while in Cordoba (Spain), they showed their highest values from 2005 to 2009. The climate analysis has shown an increase in temperature, which results in an increase in the growing degree days for the growth of the olive flower structures, particularly in the more northern areas monitored. Although the olive tree is a parsimonious water consumer that is well adapted to xeric conditions, the increase in the potential evapotranspiration index over the last decade in the Italian and Tunisian olive areas might create problems for olive groves without irrigation, with a negative influence on the flowering intensity. Overall, in all of these Mediterranean monitoring areas, the summer water deficit is an increasingly more important parameter in comparison to the winter parameters, which confirms that the winter period is not as limiting as the summer period for olive tree cultivation in these Mediterranean areas.     

Local disappearance of bivalves in the Azores during the last glaciation

The Pleistocene (Eemian) outcrops of Lagoinhas and Prainha, located at Santa Maria Island (Azores), were investigated and their fossil mollusc content reported. These studies revealed that the last glaciation affected two groups of molluscs: the ‘warm‐guest’ gastropods with West African or Caribbean affinities (e.g. Conus spp., Cantharus variegatus, Bulla amygdala, Trachypollia nodulosa) and shallow bivalve species mainly associated with sandy habitats (Ensis minor, Lucinella divaricata, and probably Laevicardium crassum). In this paper we focus on this group of bivalves, which has since locally disappeared from the Azores. We relate the local disappearance of these bivalves in the Azores with the lack of sand in the shelf. The specific characteristics of the Santa Maria shelf combined with the sea‐level drop during the Weichselian prevented deposition of the lowstand deposits and permitted erosion of the previous ones, leaving the shelf without a sediment cover. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Yardangs in terrestrial ignimbrites: Synergistic remote and field observations on Earth with applications to Mars

The conditions of formation and the form of yardangs in ignimbrites in the Central Andes of Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina may be the most convincing terrestrial analog to the processes and lithology that produce the extensive yardangs of the Medusae Fossae Formation (MFF) of Mars. Through remote and field study of yardang morphologies in the Central Andes we highlight the role that variable material properties of the host lithology plays in their final form. Here, ignimbrites typically show two main facies: an indurated and jointed facies, and a weakly to poorly indurated, ash- and pumice-rich facies. Both facies are vertically arranged in large (erupted volume >100's of km³) ignimbrites resulting in a resistant capping layer, while smaller (10's of km³) ignimbrites are made predominantly of the weakly indurated facies. The two facies have quite different mechanical properties; the indurated facies behaves as strong rock, fails by block collapse and supports steep/vertical cliffs, while the non-indurated facies is more easily eroded and forms gentle slopes and manifests as more subdued erosional forms. In response to aeolian action, the presence of an upper indurated facies results in large, elongate, high aspect ratio (1:20-1:40) megayardangs that form tall (100 m), thin ridges with steep to vertical walls. These are built on a broad apron of the weakly indurated facies with abundant fallen blocks from the upper indurated facies. These terrestrial megayardangs appear to be analogous to megayardangs with associated block fields seen on Mars. Smaller-volume, weakly indurated ignimbrites are sculpted into smaller, stubbier forms with aspect ratios of 1:5-1:10 and heights rarely exceeding 10 m. Excavation of a windward basal moat suggests an erosional progression like that seen in incipient yardangs on Mars. Excavation rates of 0.007-0.003 cm/year are calculated for the weakly indurated ignimbrites. While a persistent strong unidirectional wind is the dominant parameter controlling yardang formation and orientation, a role for flow separation and vorticity is also suggested by our observations at both yardang types. While the indurated facies is commonly pervasively jointed, jointing is of secondary importance in controlling yardang orientation. Serrated margins, a common feature on Mars, result from oblique intersections of jointing with yardang flanks or scarps of ignimbrite. The processes of yardang formation we describe from ignimbrites from the Central Andes are not necessarily specific to ignimbrites, but do connote that degree and distribution of induration is a major control in yardang formation and this has implications for the lithology of the MFF on Mars.     

Human alteration of groundwater–surface water interactions (Sagittario River,Central Italy): implication for flow regime,contaminant fate and invertebrate response

Many rivers worldwide are undergoing severe man-induced alterations which are reflected also in changes of the degree of connectivity between surface waters and groundwater. Pollution, irrigation withdrawal, alteration of freshwater flows, road construction, surface water diversion, soil erosion in agriculture, deforestation and dam building have led to some irreversible species losses and severe changes in community composition of freshwater ecosystems. Taking into account the impact of damming and flow diversion on natural river discharge, the present study is aimed at (i) evaluating the effects of anthropogenic changes on groundwater/surface water interactions; (ii) analyzing the fate of nitrogenous pollutants at the floodplain scale; and (iii) describing the overall response of invertebrate assemblages to such changes. Hydrogeological, geochemical and isotopic data revealed short- and long-term changes in hydrology, allowing the assessment of the hydrogeological setting and the evaluation of potential contamination by nitrogen compounds. Water isotopes allowed distinguishing a shallow aquifer locally fed by zenithal recharge and river losses, and a deeper aquifer/aquitard system fed by surrounding carbonate aquifers. This system was found to retain ammonium and, through the shallow aquifer, release it in surface running waters via the hyporheic zone of the riverbed. All these factors influence river ecosystem health. As many environmental drivers entered in action offering a multiple-component artificial environment, a clear relationship between river flow alteration and benthic and hyporheic invertebrate diversity was not found, being species response driven by the combination of three main stressors: ammonium pollution, man-induced changes in river morphology and altered discharge regime.     

Natural Variability of Shear Strength in a Granite Residual Soil from Porto

The renewal imposed by the Eurocodes regarding the methodologies of safety evaluation requires a statistical analysis of the variability of ground geotechnical parameters. However, the studies published in the reviewed literature do not cover the typical materials from the northeast region of Portugal—residual soils from granite—to which a strong heterogeneity is associated. Hence, a statistical characterization of the natural variability of a granite residual soil from Porto has been made through a significant amount of experimental tests, focusing on its geomechanical properties. In order to provide a database for probabilistic analysis of problems involving this type of soils, an appropriate statistical law has been used to model its variability, which has been quantified by means of coefficients of variation and scales of fluctuation.