DERIVATION OF FLUXES FROM PROFILES OVER A MODERATELY HOMOGENEOUS FOREST

Measurements of fluxes and profiles of wind andtemperature are performed in the roughness layer ofa moderately homogeneous forest location. Weinvestigate to what extent vertical scalar fluxescan be derived from profile measurements. Theinfluence of inhomogeneities in the upwind terrainis investigated with footprint analysis and with aninhomogeneous surface-layer model. Four methods toestimate displacement height are suggested, amongthem is a method involving the structure parameterof the vertical wind. All methods give a decrease ofdisplacement height with increasing wind speed,while roughness length is found to increase withincreasing wind speed. For near-neutral conditionsdimensionless temperature gradients are found to besubstantially lower than the surface-layer valuesfound in the literature for homogeneous terrain with lowvegetation. Dimensionless shear however iscomparable with the surface-layer value. The heightof the roughness layer is 20 times the roughnesslength. Two schemes with locally derived surfaceparameters are tested to derive friction velocityand sensible heat flux from the profilemeasurements. These site specific schemes performsatisfactorily. A third scheme based on surface parameters chosen a priorifrom the literatureperforms significantly worse especially for low windspeed and unstable cases.     

迅速抬升剥蚀山区大地热流的地形校正

在大地热流评估中，经常要对接近地表的实测值进行校正，然而在迅速抬升剥蚀的崎岖山区，在抬升剥蚀校正基础上进一步作地形校正时，没有剥蚀静态条件下的地形校正是否仍然适用是一个没有讨论过的问题．本文以新西兰的南阿尔卑斯山地区为例，通过有限单元法数值计算，探讨了迅速抬升剥蚀的山区剥蚀和地形二者对近地表不同深度地热流量影响的综合效应．结果表明，虽然迅速抬升地区大地热流密度的地形校正与不考虑剥蚀情况下的校正在较大深度处会略有差别，但总的来说差别甚微．因此，可以沿用传统的地形校正方法，根据钻孔所处地形和测温深度作地形校正．     

The Late Jurassic Tithonian, a greenhouse phase in the Middle Jurassic–Early Cretaceous 'cool' mode: evidence from the cyclic Adriatic Platform, Croatia

Well‐exposed Mesozoic sections of the Bahama‐like Adriatic Platform along the Dalmatian coast (southern Croatia) reveal the detailed stacking patterns of cyclic facies within the rapidly subsiding Late Jurassic (Tithonian) shallow platform‐interior (over 750 m thick, ca 5–6 Myr duration). Facies within parasequences include dasyclad‐oncoid mudstone‐wackestone‐floatstone and skeletal‐peloid wackestone‐packstone (shallow lagoon), intraclast‐peloid packstone and grainstone (shoal), radial‐ooid grainstone (hypersaline shallow subtidal/intertidal shoals and ponds), lime mudstone (restricted lagoon), fenestral carbonates and microbial laminites (tidal flat). Parasequences in the overall transgressive Lower Tithonian sections are 1–4·5 m thick, and dominated by subtidal facies, some of which are capped by very shallow‐water grainstone‐packstone or restricted lime mudstone; laminated tidal caps become common only towards the interior of the platform. Parasequences in the regressive Upper Tithonian are dominated by peritidal facies with distinctive basal oolite units and well‐developed laminate caps. Maximum water depths of facies within parasequences (estimated from stratigraphic distance of the facies to the base of the tidal flat units capping parasequences) were generally <4 m, and facies show strongly overlapping depth ranges suggesting facies mosaics. Parasequences were formed by precessional (20 kyr) orbital forcing and form parasequence sets of 100 and 400 kyr eccentricity bundles. Parasequences are arranged in third‐order sequences that lack significant bounding disconformities, and are evident on accommodation (Fischer) plots of cumulative departure from average cycle thickness plotted against cycle number or stratigraphic position. Modelling suggests that precessional sea‐level changes were small (several metres) as were eccentricity sea‐level changes (or precessional sea‐level changes modulated by eccentricity), supporting a global, hot greenhouse climate for the Late Jurassic (Tithonian) within the overall ‘cool’ mode of the Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous.     

Stable isotope evidence for the origin of diagenetic carbonate minerals from the Lower Jurassic Inmar Formation, southern Israel

The oxygen isotope compositions of diagenetic carbonate minerals from the Lower Jurassic Inmar Formation, southern Israel, have been used to identify porewater types during diagenesis. Changes in porewater composition can be related to major geological events within southern Israel. In particular, saline brines played an important role in late (Pliocene-Pleistocene) dolomitization of these rocks. Diagenetic carbonates included early siderite (δ¹⁸O_SMOW=+24.4 to +26.5‰δ¹³C_PDB=?1.1 to +0.8‰), late dolomite, ferroan dolomite and ankerite (δ¹⁸O_SMOW=+18.4 to +25.8‰; δ¹³C_PDB=?2.1 to +0.2‰), and calcite (δ¹⁸O_SMOW=+21.3 to +32.6‰; δ¹³C_PDB=?4.2 to + 3.2‰). The petrographic and isotopic results suggest that siderite formed early in the diagenetic history at shallow depths. The dolomitic phases formed at greater depths late in diagenesis. Crystallization of secondary calcite spans early to late diagenesis, consistent with its large range in isotopic values. A strong negative correlation exists between burial depth (temperature) and the oxygen isotopic compositions of the dolomitic cements. In addition, the δ¹⁸O values of the dolomitic phases in the northern Negev and Judea Mountains are in isotopic equilibrium with present formation waters. This behaviour suggests that formation of secondary dolomite post-dates the tectonic activity responsible for the present relief of southern Israel (Upper Miocene to Pliocene) and that the dolomite crystallized from present formation waters. Such is not the case in the Central Negev. In that locality, present formation waters have much lower salinities and δ¹⁸O values, indicating invasion of freshwater, and are out of isotopic equilibrium with secondary dolomite. Recharge of the Inmar Formation by meteoric water in the Central Negev occurred in the Pleistocene, and halted formation of dolomite.     

Sea‐level rise,depth‐dependent carbonate sedimentation and the paradox of drowned platforms

A mathematical model of carbonate platform evolution is presented in which depth‐dependent carbonate growth rates determine platform‐top accumulation patterns in response to rising relative sea‐level. This model predicts that carbonate platform evolution is controlled primarily by the water depth and sediment accumulation rate conditions at the onset of relative sea‐level rise. The long‐standing ‘paradox of a drowned platform’ arose from the observation that maximum growth rate potentials of healthy platforms are faster than those of relative sea‐level rise. The model presented here demonstrates that a carbonate platform could be drowned during a constant relative sea‐level rise whose rate remains less than the maximum carbonate production potential. This scenario does not require environmental changes, such as increases in nutrient supply or siliciclastic sedimentation, to have taken place. A rate of relative sea‐level rise that is higher than the carbonate accumulation rate at the initial water depth is the only necessary condition to cause continuous negative feedbacks to the sediment accumulation rates. Under these conditions, the top of the carbonate platform gradually deepens until it is below the active photic zone and drowns despite the strong maximum growth potential of the carbonate production factory. This result effectively resolves the paradox of a drowned carbonate platform. Test modelling runs conducted with 2·5 m and 15 m initial sea water depths at bracketed rates of relative sea‐level rise have determined how fast the system catches up and maintains the ‘keep‐up’ phase. This is the measure of time necessary for the basin to respond fully to external forcing mechanisms. The duration of the ‘catch‐up’ phase of platform response (termed ‘carbonate response time’) scales with the initial sea water depth and the platform‐top aggradation rate. The catch‐up duration can be significantly elongated with an increase in the rate of relative sea‐level rise. The transition from the catch‐up to the keep‐up phases can also be delayed by a time interval associated with ecological re‐establishment after platform flooding. The carbonate model here employs a logistical equation to model the colonization of carbonate‐producing marine organisms and captures the initial time interval for full ecological re‐establishment. This mechanism prevents the full extent of carbonate production to be achieved at the incipient stage of relative sea‐level rise. The increase in delay time due to the carbonate response time and self‐organized processes associated with biological colonization increase the chances for platform drowning due to deepening of water depth (> ca 10 m). Furthermore this implies a greater likelihood for an autogenic origin for high‐frequency cyclic strata than has been estimated previously.     

Leucogranites from the Eastern Part of the South Mountain Batholith, Nova Scotia

The South Mountain Batholith is a peraluminous granitic complexranging in composition from biotite granodiorite to muscovite-topaz‘leucogranite’. Leucogranitic rocks (with generally<2% biotite) form a minor part ({small tilde}1•5%) ofthe batholith, and are of two types: (1) ‘associated leucogranites’occurring as relatively small zones in fine-grained leucomonzogranites;and (2) ‘independent leucogranites’ forming generallylarger bodies having no particular spatial association withother rock types. Mean chemical compositions of these two typesof leucogranite are as follows (associated, independent): Na₂O(3•46,3•83),K₂O(4•40,4•09),andP₂O₅ (0•26, 0•45)in wt.%;Li(149, 281), F(1199, 2712),Rb (393, 725), U (7•4, 4•4), Nb (12•8, 23•4),Ta (2•9, 7•1), and Zr (52, 31) in ppm. Rare earthelements also differ between the two types (associated, independent):REE (34•1 ppm, 19•9 ppm); and in the degree and variabilityof heavy REE fractionation (Gd_N/Yb_N=4•62•2, 2•00•7).In addition, associated leucogranite has REE compositions similarto those of its host rocks. Mean ¹⁸O values (associated +ll•21•2,independent +ll•40•5; relative to SMOW) are comparablewith the mean for the entire South Mountain Batholith (+l0•80•7).Radiometric dating (⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar on muscovite) shows that bothtypes of leucogranite have identical ages of 3723 Ma, equivalentto ages determined by other techniques for granodiorite andmonzogranite samples elsewhere in the batholith. Field relationsand geochemistry suggest that the associated leucogranite resultsfrom an open-system interaction between a fluid and its hostleucomonzogranite, whereas the independent leucogranite bodiesare discrete intrusions of highly fractionated melts that underwentclosed-system, late-magmatic to post-magmatic fluid alteration.Where mineralized, the associated leucogranite characteristicallyhosts greisen-type or disseminated polymetallic mineralization,whereas the independent leucogranite hosts pegmatitic or disseminatedpolymetallic mineralization.     

A DISCUSSION ON SEISMIC BINARY GAIN SWITCHING AMPLIFIERS *

Geophysical field equipment has undergone rapid changes in the past decade; from simple AGC amplifiers and galvo cameras to binary gain switching amplifiers and digital recorders, all in an attempt to keep pace with the new geophysical interpretive methods developed, and the growing acceptance of the terminology, methods, and philosophy of communication theory. The additional tools of the digital recorder and digital computer make it possible to utilize these new techniques in geophysical processing. Accomplishing these new techniques demands severe requirements on the digital field recording process in handling the decreasing energy return from the seismometer, and to fully realize the capabilities of digital techniques in reducing data. Simple automatic gain control may be used. However, in the more sophisticated interpretive methods, such as autoregression and deconvolution, it is necessary to reconstruct the actual energy levels in the computer. Recording the control signal used in master AGC or programmed gain control may prove satisfactory; however the accuracy of control versus gain is limited to I% for such analog instrumentation. To utilize the computer to its fullest extent, and to accurately perform these new techniques, requires an accuracy of I% or better. This accuracy is obtainable by using a step gain control where the gain is increased by fixed steps in which each step represents a gain in amplification by a constant factor. The accuracy in this case can be made dependent only on the tolerance of resistors used as attenuators or feedback elements. Preferably the constant factor of gain steps should be a number easily handled by the computer. By using 6 db steps it becomes a simple matter to shift binary numbers, such as multiplying or dividing by 10 in the decimal system. The requirements or parameters for such an amplifier system, and the elements of the amplifier necessary to achieve these requirements are presented.