Resourcing Future Generations: A Contribution by the Earth Science Community

The last 50 years saw a dramatic increase in living standards and improvement in the quality of life for many of the world’s poorest. Mortality rates fell, life expectancy rose and per capita incomes swelled. That improvement has been underpinned by technological development and the ubiquitous use of metal and mineral resources. To maintain such progress while addressing climate change and a rising world population, sustainable sources of raw materials will be required, in both developed and developing countries. Delivering the UN Agenda 2030 with its seventeen Sustainable Development Goals and implementing the Paris Agreement of December 2015 will require technologies that consume both traditional and new minerals. Metal recycling and technological change will contribute, but mining must continue and grow for the foreseeable future. Of the 200 or so countries in the world, 60 are open to large-scale mining but 140 are not. New resource governance linkages are needed between existing institutional frameworks so that continuity of global mineral supply is assured over coming decades. Such arrangements would oversee responsible sourcing of minerals, directions of mineral exploration and sustainability of mining and ore processing, raising of consumer awareness and sharing the wealth generated by mining more fairly.     

Fractal models for the fragmentation of rocks and soils: a review

Fragmentation, the process of breaking apart into fragments, is caused by the propagation of multiple fractures at different length scales. Such fractures can be induced by dynamic crack growth during compressive/tensile loading or by stress waves during impact loading. Fragmentation of rocks occurs in resoonse to tectonic activity, percussive drilling, grinding and blasting. Soil fragmentation is the result of tillage and planting operations. Fractal theory, which deals with the scaling of hierarchical and irregur systems, offers new opportunities for modeling the fragmentation process. This paper reviews the literature on fractal models for the fragmentation of heterogeneous brittle earth materials. Fractal models are available for the fragmentation of: (1) classical aggregate; (2) aggregates with fractal pore space; and (3) aggregates with fractal surfaces. In each case, the aggregates are composed of building blocks of finite size. Structural failure is hierarchical in nature and takes place by multiple fracturing of the aggregated building blocks. The resulting number-size distribution of fragments depends on the probability of failure, P(1/bⁱ) at each level in the hierarchy. Models for both scale-invariant and scale-dependent are reviewed. In the case of scale-invariant P(1/bⁱ)< 1, theory predict: D_f = 3 + log [P(1/bⁱ)]/log[b] for classical aggregates; D_f=D_m+log[P(1/bⁱ)]/log[b] for aggregates with fractal pore space; and D_f=D_s for aggregates with fractal surfaces. where b is a scaling factor and D_f, D_m and D_s are the fragmentation, mass and surface fractal dimensions, respectively. The physical significance of these parameters is discussed, methods of estimating them are reviewed, and topics needing further research are identified.     

Are band-pass variance statistics useful measures of storm track activity? Re-examining storm track variability associated with the NAO using multiple storm track measures

Over the past few decades, band-pass filtered (BP) variance statistics have been widely used as indicators of storm track activity. A recent study suggested that these statistics may be subjected to biases related to Doppler shifting of variance into and out of the fixed frequency band, in the process perhaps greatly exaggerating the correlation between BP variance and mean flow variability. In this study, BP statistics are examined together with other storm track measures to assess whether BP variances are useful indicators of the patterns of storm track activity. Storm track variability related to the North Atlantic Oscillation, as well as the five leading EOFs of 300 hPa BP filtered variance statistics, have been examined. Results presented here suggest that BP variance statistics are useful measures of the patterns of storm track activity. Firstly, BP variance statistics largely reflect changes in total unfiltered transient eddy variance as well as spatially filtered statistics. Secondly, different BP statistics all give qualitatively similar patterns. Thirdly, patterns derived from BP statistics are well correlated (spatially) with precipitation anomalies. In addition, BP statistics are straightforward to compute, and easily reproducible. Moreover, BP variance and covariance statistics are closely related to how storm tracks interact with the large scale circulation. However, results shown in this paper support the suggestion that some biases may be caused by the Doppler effect, especially for variations such as the NAO which are tightly tied to changes in the background flow speed. Thus it is argued that BP statistics should be examined together with other measures of storm track activity to obtain a broader perspective on storm track variations.     

Convergence or differentiation? American and Japanese transnational corporations in the Asia Pacific

As the global economic environment becomes increasingly driven by the activities of transnational corporations (TNCs) from different national origins, the question of convergence as opposed to differentiation in patterns of internationalization among TNCs has begun to intrigue a number of researchers. In this paper, we examine the extent to which the strategic functions of Japanese and American TNCs in the Asia Pacific have converged over time. We draw from a recent survey of TNCs conducted in Hong Kong and Singapore. Detailed analysis of TNC functions in both the manufacturing and non-manufacturing sectors suggests that convergence between Japanese and American TNCs has occurred most in the area of control-coordination functions among manufacturing firms, arising from a premium placed on intra-TNC organizational stability and isomorphism. On the other hand, substantial differentiation has occurred in functions that are associated with upstream and downstream processes, with Japanese TNCs emphasizing integration in marketing and manufacturing processes as well as forward integration. In contrast, American TNCs tend to focus on business and product development functions that enable them to exploit product and service differentiation.     

Uptake and depuration of PAHs and chlorinated pesticides by semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and green-lipped mussels (Perna viridis)

Semi-batch seawater experiments were conducted to follow the uptake and release of selected PAHs (anthracene, fluorathene, pyrene and B[a]P) and organochlorine pesticides (α-HCH, aldrin, dieldrin, p,p′-DDT) in semi-permeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and green-lipped mussels (Perna viridis). Mathematical models were applied to describe the uptake and elimination curves of the contaminants for SPMDs, and kinetic parameters, such as uptake rate constants, and equilibrium triolein/water partitioning coefficients were calculated. SPMD data showed a good fit to estimate rate constant and partition coefficient equations, but only those contaminants which partitioned mainly in the dissolved phase (α-HCH and dieldrin) were well explained for mussels. Poor conformity of the other contaminants indicated mussels uptake by routes other than diffusion, such as ingestion of algae. An apparent equilibrium state was only noted for α-HCH in mussels. Aldrin was not detected in mussels in the first few days of exposure, indicating potential metabolism of this compound. B[a]P was not detected in the triolein of SPMDs, which suggests that the membrane may act as a reservoir. Loss of spiked B[a]P from the triolein was evident in a depuration experiment, which may indicate transfer to the membrane. Rate constants for mussels were higher than those for SPMDs, but the reverse was true for partition coefficients. Overall, mussels and SPMDs had similar uptake rates for all compounds in this study, excluding p,p′-DDT and dieldrin. Contaminant elimination took place more rapidly in mussels, implying that SPMDs are better candidates for detecting episodic discharge of organic contaminants.     

A Model-Based Evaluation of Horizontal Wells for Improving the Functionality of an Urban Reservoir System

A method is proposed for utilizing the storage capacity of unconfined aquifers to increase the efficiency of existing water-supply reservoirs presently losing water to seasonal spillages. The approach proposed uses horizontal wells to control the watertable elevation in the reservoir catchments, permitting a degree of control over the discharge of the streams flowing to the reservoirs. This may provide an alternative to reservoir construction, thus avoiding loss of ecosystems or productive land. The use of horizontal wells provides a range of control options, including increasing stream discharge during summer and reducing and delaying peak discharge from rainfall events during winter. A numerical groundwater model is utilized to simulate the operation of hypothetical horizontal wells within a water supply catchment of Auckland City, New Zealand. Results suggest potential for a significant increase in summer stream flow, coupled with a reduction in winter peak discharges associated with present reservoir spillage.     

Dealing with earthquakes: the practice of seismic engineering ‘as if people mattered’

This paper sets out to explore the different ways in which communities deal with earthquakes. As is well known, the ability to recover from a damaging earthquake varies greatly across the world. The events of 2010 were of course a striking reminder of this, when the death toll from the Haïti earthquake was at least 100,000; in the very different conditions of Chile, a much larger event the same year killed just 525 people. In a narrow sense, much of the difference can be explained in terms of the engineering properties of the physical infrastructure affected; the better it has been designed and constructed to withstand strong ground shaking, the greater the chance that the community affected has of recovering quickly. However, the central thesis of this paper is that the ability of a community to deal with earthquakes involves much more than just technical factors. Seismically resilient buildings and other infrastructure will only be in place when an earthquake strikes if there has been a willingness and ability to devote the necessary resources to building them. Moreover, taking prior steps to limit physical damage is only one part of the process for dealing with earthquakes; providing for immediate post-earthquake needs and for the longer term rebuilding of communities is also important. To pursue these issues further, and how they might affect engineers, I visited four widely differing regions of high seismicity. During this study tour, I examined the societal context in which seismic engineers operate and talked to many people involved in earthquake protection and response. The intention was to identify the ways in which the ability of communities to deal with earthquakes depend on societal factors such as economics, politics and more general cultural dimensions. Based on these investigations, I believe that seismic engineers can contribute more effectively to ensuring successful outcomes after an earthquake strikes if fully aware of these societal factors. We need to look beyond our narrow technical field of providing earthquake resistant facilities and widen our vision to consider the complex systems, both ‘hard’ and ‘soft’, in which those facilities will operate. E. F. Schumacher’s famous book (Schumacher 1973) ‘Small is beautiful’ has the subtitle ‘the study of economics as if people mattered’. I believe that seismic engineering should be practised ‘as if people mattered’.     

Simulating the Background Noise in the LEGRI CZT Detectors

A Monte-Carlo model of the MINISAT 01 satellite has been built. Thismodel, based on the GEANT software suite, is used to study the backgroundnoise induced in the cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) in the LEGRI detector.We find that the background noise count rate at the poles is 50%higher than at the equator. This increase is due to the effects of geomagneticrigidity cut-off. We also simulate the effects of passages through theSouth Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) with simulations showing an increase of 0.5 counts cm^-2 sec^-1 after the SAA, in good agreement withobservational data.     

A new aquatic crustacean (Isopoda: Cymothoida) from the early Cretaceous of southern England and comparison with the Chinese and Iberian biotas

The first malacostracan crustacean is described and named from the English Wealden, Cymothoidana websteri gen. et sp. nov., a Cirolana-like, cymothoidan isopod. The problem of homoplastic convergence in somatic characters is discussed, and Cymothoidana is treated as a collective group (morphotaxon) under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature for cirolanoid and cymothooid fossils which cannot be assigned to natural taxa on preservational grounds. The palaeoecology of early Cretaceous peracaridan malacostracans is considered, including the spelaeogriphaceans Liaoningogriphus from China (Jehol biota), and Spinogriphus from Spain (Las Hoyas Konservat-lagerstätte). There were probably no true stygobites, Spinogriphus perhaps a crenobite, but the colonisation of reduced salinity environments (Cymothoidana) and freshwater lakes (Liaoningogriphus) had commenced.     

Context in Human Geography: A Multilevel Approach to Study Human–Environment Interactions∗

One of the shortcomings of quantitative methods in human geography is an overreliance on models that can only account for the average outcomes of spatial events. Although methodological advancements in the form of multilevel models now allow human geographers to account for average outcomes as well as deviations about average outcomes of spatial events, it is not without question that such models can fully account for the cultural, political, and social contexts that affect human behavior. In this article I argue for the adoption of a multilevel approach to the study of human behavior to address some of the criticisms of quantitative methods in human geography. Using a transportation geography research agenda as an example, I discuss how a multilevel approach can complement qualitative methods. Such mixed research methods offer human geographers the opportunity to identify the appropriate role for quantitative methods and explore how context affects behavior.