The non-independence of rainfall erosivity and soil erodibility

Three high erosivity conditions (50 mm hr^?1, 100 mm hr^?1, and 200 mm hr^?1) were generated in a laboratory using a rainfall simulator and coherent soil block samples from fourteen different soil erodibility conditions. The data acquired supports the theoretical contention that soil loss should not increase as a simple linear function of storm intensity. Rather, a variable relationship is caused by the rupturing of surface seals and the changing relative significance of splash, wash and rainwash processes. Slope angle appears to influence soil loss at the higher erosivity conditions of 100 mm hr^?1 and 200 mm hr^?1 on slopes that were either very steep (> 20°) or very shallow (< 3°), but on moderate slopes the relationship is unclear. Examination of the variation of soil loss with erosivity when soil loss for a specific high erosivity condition is known revealed that conversion and power factors are of doubtful value and little generality. A satisfactory predictive equation, a power curve, is seen to be of value only when comparing rainwash soil loss between the higher erosivity conditions. The relationship is most safely considered as soil and site specific. Where the influence of slope and soil erodibility are disregarded, a strong association between soil loss and rainfall intensity is found. That soil loss, and hence, soil erodibility varies non-uniformly with erosivity is clear. The findings indicate caution is required when comparing conclusions drawn from studies based upon different erosivity conditions.     

Estimating severity of liquefaction-induced damage near foundation

An empirical procedure for estimating the severity of liquefaction-induced ground damage at or near foundations of existing buildings is established. The procedure is based on an examination of 30 case histories from recent earthquakes. The data for these case histories consist of observations of the damage that resulted from liquefaction, and the subsurface soil conditions as revealed by cone penetration tests. These field observations are used to classify these cases into one of three damaging effect categories, ‘no damage’, ‘minor to moderate damage’, and ‘major damage’. The potential for liquefaction-induced ground failure at each site is calculated and expressed as the probability of ground failure. The relationship between the probability of ground failure and the damage class is established, which allows for the evaluation of the severity of liquefaction-induced ground damage at or near foundations. The procedure presented herein represents a significant attempt to address the issue of liquefaction effect. Caution must be exercised, however, when using the proposed model and procedure for estimating liquefaction damage severity, because they are developed based on limited number of case histories.     

The downward continuation of aerial gravimetric data without density hypothesis

Techniques for downward continuing gravity field data from aircraft altitude are well established if the earth's surface is either approximated by a plane or sphere, or is replaced by one of these surfaces using terrain corrections based on a density model. An alternative procedure is presented here where the continuation is analytical to a nontrivial surface, such as the actual topographic surface. Terrain elevations must be given, but density information is specifically not used.     

Airborne vector gravimetry using precise,position-aided inertial measurement units

Vector gravimetry using a precise inertial navigation system continually updated with external position data, for example using GPS, is studied with respect to two problems. The first concerns the attitude accuracy requirement for horizontal gravity component estimation. With covariance analyses in the space and frequency domains it is argued that with relatively stable uncompensated gyro drift, the short-wavelength gravity vector can be estimated without the aid of external attitude updates. The second problem concerns the state-space estimation of the gravity signal where considerable approximations must be assumed in the gravity model in order to take advantage of the ensemble error estimation afforded by the Kalman filter technique. Gauss-Markov models for the gravity field are specially designed to reflect the attenuation of the signal at a specific altitude and the omission of the long-wavelength components from the estimation. With medium accuracy INS/GPS systems, the horizontal components of gravity with wavelengths shorter than 250 km should be estimable to an accuracy of 4–6 mgal (µg); while high accuracy systems should yield an improvement to 1–2 mgal.     

A study on the reference frame consistency in recent Earth gravitational models

All gravity field functionals obtained from an Earth gravitational model (EGM) depend on the underlying terrestrial reference frame (TRF), with respect to which the EGM’s spherical harmonic coefficients refer to. In order to maintain a coherent framework for the comparison of current and future EGMs, it is thus important to investigate the consistency of their inherent TRFs, especially when their use is intended for high precision studies. Following the methodology described in an earlier paper by Kleusberg (1980), the similarity transformation parameters between the associated reference frames for several EGMs (including the most recent CHAMP/GRACE models at the time of writing this paper) are estimated in the present study. Specifically, the differences between the spherical harmonic coefficients for various pairs of EGMs are parameterized through a 3D-similarity spatial transformation model that relates their underlying TRFs. From the least-squares adjustment of such a parametric model, the origin, orientation and scale stability between the EGMs’ reference frames can be identified by estimating their corresponding translation, rotation and scale factor parameters. Various aspects of the estimation procedure and its results are highlighted in the paper, including data weighting schemes, the sensitivity of the results with respect to the selected harmonic spectral band, the correlation structure and precision level of the estimated transformation parameters, the effect of the estimated differences of the EGMs’ reference frames on their height anomaly signal, and the overall feasibility of Kleusberg’s formulae for the assessment of TRF inconsistencies among global geopotential models.     

Acid mine drainage contaminates groundwater of a Tennessee watershed

Water samples were collected from 18 natural springs within the West Fork of the Obey River watershed. Overton County, Tennessee, to determine if groundwater was adversely affected by runoff from abandoned surface coal mines Six springs were found to be affected severely and deemed unfit as a source of potable water Water quality of the remaining springs was essentially unaffected it appeared that proximity to surface mines, elevation at the outflow, and geology of the surrounding strata determined the quality of the groundwater The unit is jointly supported by Tennessee Technological University, the Tennessee Wildlife Resource Agency, and the US. Fish and Wildlife Service     

Pressure dependence of melt viscosities on the join diopside-albite

The pressure dependence of melt viscosities on the join diopside-albite has been studied using falling-sphere viscometry. The five melt compositions investigated are: diopside, Ab₂₅Di₇₅, Ab₅₀Di₅₀, Ab₇₅Di₂₅ and albite. Experiments were performed at 1500° and 1600°C and at pressures of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 kbar. The positive and negative pressure dependence of the viscosity of diopside and albite, respectively, were confirmed. All intermediate compositions show an initial decrease in viscosity with increasing pressure; however, melt of Ab₂₅Di₇₅ composition passes through a minimum viscosity at approximately 12 kbar and 1600°C. This behavior is analogous to the variation in the viscosity of water with pressure at low temperature.

It is suggested that the three-dimensional, fully polymerized, albite structure dominates flow at low pressures. With increasing pressure, disruption of this structure and decrease in the average size of the flow units leads to domination by the diopside structure. The variation in viscosity with composition along the join at one atmosphere can be adequately modelled using the and (1965) configurational entropy model with an additional two-lattice configurational entropy of mixing term. The pressure dependence of viscosity in the diopside-albite system, however, cannot be predicted by the model, because there is an absence of information on the pressure dependence of the model parameters.

It is probable that relatively polymerized magmas (e.g. rhyolites to SiO₂-saturated basalts) show a negative pressure dependence of viscosity to depths where they originate in the lower crust or upper mantle. In contrast, the most depolymerized, naturally-occurring melts, such as strongly SiO₂-undersaturated basalts and picrites, may exhibit a viscosity minimum. The viscosity of these melts may be sufficiently high at depths within the upper mantle to inhibit their segregation, rise and eventual eruption at the surface.     

Geomorphic analysis reveals active tectonic deformation on the eastern flank of the Pir Panjal Range,Kashmir Valley,India

There are plenty of faults that show evidence that they are active. Most of the valley’s floor is occupied by unconsolidated Karewa deposits, in particular on the south–southwest of the Kashmir Valley. In such situations, geomorphic data can reveal the location of active faults. Accordingly, we tried to identify geomorphic indices in SW of the Kashmir Valley (Veshav, Rambiara, and Romushi drainage basins), which revealed the area to be potentially tectonically active. This active faulting was further substantiated by drainage anomalies and field investigations, which provides evidence for an emergent out-of-sequence NE-dipping active reverse fault (identified first time on ground) named the Balapur Fault (BF). The BF can be traced over at least 40 km along the southwest side of the Kashmir Valley. The existence of the active Balapur Fault and of two other inferred faults north of the Panjal Thrust or Murree Thrust presents a picture of a more complex strain-partitioning regime in the Kashmir Himalayas than is usually visualized.     

Primitive Ordovician (Floian) echinoderms from Sandu,Guizhou Province,South China,and their significance

Pelmatozoans diversified primarily during the Middle and Late Ordovician Period, with Early Ordovician records being much more limited, resulting in many gaps in our knowledge of the early stages of their diversification. Dissociated pelmatozoan ossicles have been found abundantly in one section in the Tonggao Formation (Tetragraptus approximatus Biozone, Floian, Early Ordovician). Most of the ossicles are thecal plates and stem ossicles from hemicosmitoid and glyptocystitoid cystoids. Thecal plates of ‘Cheirocrinus’ sp., Polycosmites sp., and other plates of uncertain affinity are described. A different ossicle type, Pentagonopentagonalis (col.), may represent crinoid remains; this would be one of the earliest occurrences of the class. The thecal ossicles and columnals are all considered, as both sets of data are desirable to determine the most complete estimate of generic diversity. The echinoderm ossicles may have been transported in from shallower water palaeoenvironments and clusters of ossicles may represent coprolites or regurgitates. Estimates of Early Ordovician palaeogeography that place this site at 30°S or near the palaeoequator are supported by the physiological requirements of the primitive echinoderms described herein. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.