Changes in American urban floodplain occupancy since 1958: the experiences of nine cities

In 1958, researchers from the University of Chicago documented increases in the number of structures in the floodplains of 17 American cities, a phenomenon attributed to the prevalence of flood control structures. Because federal policies have shifted to managing floodplains, this paper updates the 1958 study for nine of the cities. Several trends are apparent. Development pressures determine flood-plain encroachment; floodplain management regulations have been implemented where it was easiest to do so. Further, structural measures continue to dominate. Thus, while many local officials are becoming more aware of advantages of flood-plain regulation, implementation and enforcement are inconsistent and uneven.     

Improved Petrological Modal Analyses from X-ray Powder Diffraction Data by use of the Rietveld Method I. Selected Igneous, Volcanic, and Metamorphic Rocks

Mineral modes have been determined for specimens of eight rocktypes from CuK X-ray powder diffraction data using the Rietveldmethod. The samples include two granites, a granodiorite, adamellite,gabbro, basalt, trachyte, and two granulite-facies metamorphicrocks. Up to eight individual mineral components have been measuredin each sample (no glassy phases were observed), with a detectionlimit of {small tilde}1 wt.%, depending on the mineral assemblage.Marked variations in grain size (i.e., granite vs. trachyte)provide no difficulties for the X-ray method. The X-ray resultscompare very favourably with (1) optical modes determined forthe medium–coarse-grained samples by point counting, (2)normative calculations obtained using locally enhanced catanormand mesonorm software, and (3) corresponding Rietveld modesdetermined, for two samples, from neutron powder data. Wheredifferences occur, these are discussed in relation to the limitationsof each of the methods. The improved accuracy of the X-ray method is due primarily tothe incorporation of the full diffraction profile in the Rietveldanalysis calculations, and the elimination of preferred orientationby collecting the data from samples packed in glass capillaries(i.e., Debye–Scherrer mode). The good agreement of theX-ray and neutron modes shows that the usual problems encounteredwith microabsorption, extinction, and sampling are of littleconcern in these rocks. The results highlight one of the majoradvantages provided by Rietveld modal analysis over the moretraditional ‘reference intensity’ X-ray methods,namely, that the crystal chemistry (and thus the calibrationconstants) of the individual phases can be adjusted dynamicallyduring each individual analysis. This not only provides moreaccurate phase abundances, but also gives important supplementaryinformation about the mineralogy of the major components.     

A Model of Magmatic Crystallization

A computer model simulating fractional crystallization at oneatmosphere pressure incorporates nine broadly-defined minerals—magnetite,olivine, hypersthene, augite, quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase,leucite, and nepheline. The crystallization temperature of eachmineral is considered to be a smooth function of the compositionof the magmatic liquid. These mineral temperature equationsare obtained by multiple linear regression analysis of informationfrom published silicate systems and rock melting experiments.The nine equations are solved for any primary liquid, withinthe broad range of common magma types, to select the crystallizingmineral or minerals. Partition ratios from published experimentsand analyses of lavas and phenocrysts permit calculation ofthe composition of the crystallizing mineral assemblage. Subtractionof a small amount of that composition from the primary liquidyields a new liquid, which may be recycled to yield a sequenceof liquids during fractional crystallization. The crystallizationmodel handles assemblages of co-precipitating minerals, andcan trace progressive saturation in new minerals, substitutionof a new mineral for an old mineral, and cessation of crystallizationof a mineral. The sequences of minerals and liquids derivedfrom a broad set of primary liquids are geologically realistic,so the model is useful in predicting phenocrysts in volcanicrocks and events during crystallization of shallow intrusions.     

Desert vegetation and timing of solar radiation

Timing and amount of solar radiation were examined as factors influencing the distribution of seven perennial plants on a small mountain located in the Chihuahuan Desert. Average direct beam solar radiation fluxes at differing times throughout the day and year were estimated with computer calculations. Principal components analysis was used to reduce the number of solar radiation parameters and include the maximum available information with a manageable number of variables. The remaining solar radiation parameters were compared to plant distributions using redundancy analysis and generalized additive models. Unimodal, bimodal, and monotonic responses were all found depending upon the species and solar radiation parameter. Niche separation at this location depends upon the timing as well as the amount of solar radiation.     

Investigation of submicron volcanic aerosol-particles by photoelectron emission

Volcanic aerosol emissions have been studied for the first time by in situ photoelectric charging. Explorative studies on Mt Etna reveal large concentrations of particles below 1000 nm with the spectrum peaking in the size range of 100–1000 nm diameter. Although a large fraction of the particles is already charged upon emission, the net electrical charge carried by the aerosol turned out to be close to zero.Particles with high photoelectric yield vary greatly in their relative abundance and seem to occur mainly at active points of the volcano.     

Evaporation and radiation heat balance at the soil surface

Summary Evaporation from an area covered with short clover-grass has been determined by means of evapotranspirometers (4 m²), open (12 m²) and screened (1/3 m²) evaporimeters, and it has been estimated on the basis ofPenman's andThornthwaite's theories, too. The results of the measurements with the various instruments are compared with each other and with the results derived from the cited theories.Further, radiation heat balances have been made, including evaporation and heating of soil and atmosphere.

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Zusammenfassung Die Verdunstung über einer mit kurzem Kleegras bedeckten Fläche wurde mittels Evapotranspirometern (4 m²), offenen (12 m²) und abgeschirmten (1/3 m²) Evaporimetern gemessen und auch auf Grund vonPenmans undThornthwaites Theorien berechnet. Die Meßergebnisse der verschiedenen Instrumente werden untereinander verglichen und auch den mittels der angeführten Theorien abgeleiteten Resultaten gegenübergestellt.Weiters wurde eine Strahlungs-Wärme-Bilanz aufgestellt, die auch die Verdunstung und die Erwärmung von Boden und Atmosphäre berücksichtigt.

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Résumé On a mesuré l'évaporation sur une surface recouverte de trèfle court à l'aide d'évapotranspiromètres (4 m²) et d'évaporimètres ouverts (12 m²) et protégés (1/3 m²); les résultats de mesures, furent comparés entre eux et avec la théorie dePenman etThornthwaite.Puis on a dressé un bilan radiatif tenant compte, de l'évaporation et du réchauffement du sol et de l'atmosphère.

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With 8 Figures     

Der Mechanismus der dreimonatigen Oszillation des Großen Roten Flecks auf dem Jupiter

The present paper is a test to explain the three-month oscillation of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter as a solution of the NAVIER-STOKES equation which is coupled with a nonlinear equation of oscillation. Since several parameters resp. functions are unknown it is difficult to find quantitative solutions.     

Radio spectra of some markarian galaxies

Radio spectra of 16 Markarian galaxies are studied between 2.7 and 15.5 GHz. The Seyfert-type galaxies have power-law spectra with an average spectral index of -0.82, except for MRK 348, which is an active galaxy with a complex spectrum. The galaxies with featureless optical spectra have rather flat radio spectra, similar to BL Lac-type objects.