Variation of the Chemistry of the Dead Sea Brine as Consequence of the Decreasing Water Level

For many years, the Dead Sea suffers from an annual inflow deficiency of about one billion cubic meters, flood and baseflow. The water level changes are related to the majority of surface water inflows diverted for irrigation purposes, in addition to intensive loss of water by the high rate of evaporation and industrial water use. This causes the Dead Sea water level to decline about 35 m within the last 50 years for a long-term average of about 0.79 m per year. The changes in the hydrochemical composition were simulated experimentally to determine the changes that take place as a function of brine water evaporation level and its density. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and the density of the Dead Sea water varies as a function of its water evaporation level changes. It was found that the density variation is not following a linear function with respect to water volume changes. But it follows the total amount of precipitate that occurred at different water levels. The electrical conductivity (EC) changes with respect to time and the prevailing temperature. There was no formula to calculate the high salinity of brine water above the normal ocean water. Consequently, the EC measurements were adopted to represent the Dead Sea water salinity. But in this research a converging factor (0.80971) has been found to convert the TDS values into salinity values. On contrary, the pH values revealed an inverse relationship with respect to the evaporation levels.     

Reactive transport modeling of uranium 238 and radium 226 in groundwater of the Königstein uranium mine, Germany

Knowledge of the transport behavior of radionuclides in groundwater is needed for both groundwater protection and remediation of abandoned uranium mines and milling sites. Dispersion, diffusion, mixing, recharge to the aquifer, and chemical interactions, as well as radioactive decay, should be taken into account to obtain reliable predictions on transport of primordial nuclides in groundwater. This paper demonstrates the need for carrying out rehabilitation strategies before closure of the Königstein in-situ leaching uranium mine near Dresden, Germany. Column experiments on drilling cores with uranium-enriched tap water provided data about the exchange behavior of uranium. Uranium breakthrough was observed after more than 20 pore volumes. This strong retardation is due to the exchange of positively charged uranium ions. The code TReAC is a 1-D, 2-D, and 3-D reactive transport code that was modified to take into account the radioactive decay of uranium and the most important daughter nuclides, and to include double-porosity flow. TReAC satisfactorily simulated the breakthrough curves of the column experiments and provided a first approximation of exchange parameters. Groundwater flow in the region of the Königstein mine was simulated using the FLOWPATH code. Reactive transport behavior was simulated with TReAC in one dimension along a 6000-m path line. Results show that uranium migration is relatively slow, but that due to decay of uranium, the concentration of radium along the flow path increases. Results are highly sensitive to the influence of double-porosity flow.     

Nutrient flux in the Rhode River: Tidal transport of microorganisms in brackish marshes

Concentrations of bacteria, chlorophyll a, and several dissolved organic compounds were determined during 11 tidal cycles throughout the year in a high and a low elevation marsh of a brackish tidal estuary. Mean bacterial concentrations were slightly higher in flooding (7·1 × 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹) than in ebbing waters (6·5 × 10⁶ cells ml⁻¹), and there were no differences between marshes. Mean chlorophyll a concentrations were 36·7 μg l⁻¹ in the low marsh and 20·4 μg l⁻¹ in the high marsh. Flux calculations, based on tidal records and measured concentrations, suggested a small net import of bacterial and algal biomass into both marshes. Over the course of individual tidal cycles, concentrations of all parameters were variable and not related to tidal stage. Heterotrophic activity measured by the uptake of ³H-thymidine, was found predominantly in the smallest particle size fractions (< 1·0 μm). Thymidine uptake was correlated with temperature (r = 0·48, P < 0·01), and bacterial productivity was estimated to be 7 to 42 μg Cl⁻¹ day⁻¹.     

Carbon dioxide treatment of low density sludge: a new remediation strategy for acidic mining lakes?

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is treated at several points in the Lausitz lignite mine district (Saxony, Germany) in treatment plants. The remaining alkaline low density sludge (LDS) was deposited in acidic mining lakes without having an impact on the lake water quality. Batch experiments show that alkalinity can be raised using LDS from acid mine drainage treatment plants together with CO₂. Batch experiments were conducted using lake water and deposited LDS from the mining lake Spreetal-Nordost with varying concentrations of CO₂. Also the duration of gas contact as well as the LDS–water ratio was changed in the batch experiments. The gas contact time and the partial pressure of CO₂ are the relevant parameters controlling the alkalinity in the lake water at the end of the experiments. The Ca and Mg concentrations of the pore water are relevant for higher pH values. Therefore, dissolved CO₂ can form bicarbonate or carbonate complexes, thus alkalinity rises. A second factor for alkalinity gain is the calcite content of the sludge, because CO₂ triggers the dissolution of carbonates. Therefore, unused calcite in the sludge can raise the alkalinity more effectively by the application of carbon dioxide. Furthermore, it was shown that remobilization of trace elements will not affect the water quality.     

Late evening ozone maxima

The diurnal cycle of ozone at the surface and within the PBL is examined. It is concluded that the intrusion of air masses from ozone-rich layers in the lower troposphere results in late evening ozone maxima observed at ground stations on mountain slopes as well as within distinct layers of the PBL above the valley bottom. The ozone-rich layers are assumed to exist due to meso- or large-scale horizontal transport of smog air masses and a local cross-valley wind system is shown to be responsible for the occurrence of the intrusion processes.     

Phase functions of polar mesospheric cloud ice as observed by the CIPS instrument on the AIM satellite

The Cloud Imaging and Particle Size (CIPS) instrument on the Aeronomy of the Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) spacecraft is a 4-camera nadir pointed imager with a bandpass centered at 265 nm and a field of view of 120°×80°. CIPS observes polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) against the sunlit Rayleigh-scattered background. At individual polar locations approximately 5 km×5 km in area, CIPS observes the same volume of air seven times over a range of scattering angles from about 35° to 150°. These multi-angle observations allow the identification and extraction of the PMC scattered radiance from the Rayleigh-scattered background. We utilize the fact that the former has a highly asymmetric phase function about 90° scattering angle, while the latter has a phase function that is symmetric. The retrieved PMC phase function can then be interpreted to obtain PMC particle size distributions. We describe a technique for identification of PMCs in the CIPS observations through the separation of the Rayleigh and PMC radiances. PMC phase function results are shown for the first season of CIPS observations. Assuming the particles are oblate spheroids with an axial ratio of 2, and a Gaussian distribution of width 14 nm, we find the phase functions are consistent with mean radii between 50 and 60 nm. These results are similar to those discussed by Hervig et al. [2009. Interpretation of SOFIE PMC measurements: cloud identification and derivation of mass density, particle shape, and particle size. J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., in review.] in this issue from the Solar Occultation for Ice Experiment (SOFIE) which also flies on the AIM satellite.     

Hydrochemical and isotopic investigation of groundwater of Al-Batin alluvial fan aquifer,Southern Iraq

Major ions and important trace elements in addition to δ¹⁸O and δ²H were analysed for 43 groundwater samples sampled from the Al-Batin alluvial fan aquifer, South Iraq. The most dominant ions (with respect to molarity) were: Na⁺ > Cl^? > SO₄ ^2? > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ > NO₃ ^? > HCO₃ ^?, with total dissolved solids (TDS) averaging 7855 mg/L. High concentrations were found for the trace elements U, Mo, V, B, Sr, and Cr. This study suggests a hydraulic connection exists near the fan apex between the uppermost part of the Al-Batin aquifer and the underlying Dammam aquifer by means of the Abu-Jir fault system. Except for the effects of extensive irrigation, fertilizer use, and poorly maintained sewers, the groundwater chemistry is mainly controlled by geological processes such as dissolution of evaporites and the enrichment of dissolved ions as a result of the high evaporation and low recharge rate. Furthermore, it is shown that the Kuwaiti fuel–oil burning during Gulf War in 1991 contributed to the enrichment of V and Mo in the studied aquifer. The spatial distribution of most ions appears to generally increase from the south-west towards the north-east, in the direction of groundwater flow. The stable isotopes show heavier values in groundwater with a gradually increasing trend in the direction of groundwater flow due to the decreasing depth to groundwater and thus increasing of evaporation from both groundwater or irrigation return water. Additionally, the stable isotope signature suggests that rainfall from sources in the Arabian Gulf and the Arabian Sea is the major source of recharge for the Al-Batin aquifer. Except for two samples of groundwater, all samples were not suitable for potable use according to the WHO standards. Most of the groundwater is suitable for some agricultural purpose and for livestock water supply. Apart from the high salinity, boron represents the most critical element in the groundwater with respect to agricultural purposes.     

Obtaining stable redox potential readings in gneiss groundwater and mine water: difficulties,meaningfulness, and potential improvement

Natural samples were run in three parallel flow-through cells in the laboratory in order to study the difficulties of obtaining stable redox potential readings, especially in gneiss groundwater and mine water with little redox buffer capacity. Redox potentials were recorded every 2 min for up to 5 days. Measured redox potentials were compared to means of partial potentials, modeled based on species-selective determinations of the most predominant redox-sensitive elements iron and nitrogen. Redox potentials stabilized reproducibly within minutes for a synthetic redox buffer solution and two well-buffered acid mine water samples at pH 2.3 and 3.5. For waters in redox disequilibrium, species-selective analytics might still be the better alternative compared to measuring the redox potential as summary parameter for modeling species distribution. In cases where the redox potential is the only readily available parameter, filtration and possibly acidification is recommended for quicker stabilization of redox potential readings and less deviations between measured and modeled values. A minimum of 2% was achieved in the samples investigated, however, often after measuring significantly longer than the previously suggested 30 min. Final stabilization could take up to several hours in waters with low buffer capacity.

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Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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Résumé Afin d’étudier les difficultés à obtenir des lectures stables des potentiels redox, notamment sur les eaux souterraines présentes dans des gneiss et dans les mines, qui présentent un faible pouvoir tampon, des échantillons ont été prélevés régulièrement en laboratoire, dans trois cellules d’écoulement parallèles. Les potentiels redox ont été enregistrés toutes les deux minutes durant cinq jours. Ces potentiels redox mesurés ont été comparés aux moyennes des potentiels partiels, modélisés à partir des déterminations sélectives des espèces chimiques des éléments sensibles aux conditions redox les plus prédominants, le fer et l’azote. Les potentiels redox se sont systématiquement stabilisés en quelques minutes pour une solution tampon synthétique et pour deux échantillons d’eaux de mines acides bien tamponnées à pH 2.3 à 3.5. Pour les eaux en déséquilibre redox, des analyses sélectives des espèces chimiques seraient toujours la meilleure alternative aux mesures sommaires du potentiel redox, pour modéliser la distribution des espèces. Dans les cas où le potentiel redox est le seul paramètre directement disponible, une filtration et éventuellement une acidification sont recommandées pour obtenir une stabilisation plus rapide des lectures des potentiels redox, et pour réduire les écarts entre les valeurs mesurées et modélisées. Un minimum de 2% a été atteint parmi les échantillons étudiés, mais en prolongeant souvent les mesures au-delà des 30 minutes suggérées initialement. La stabilisation finale pourrait prendre jusqu’à plusieurs heures dans des eaux à faible pouvoir tampon.

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Resumen Se han llevado a cabo experimentos en laboratorio sobre tres muestras naturales en tres células de flujo paralelas, para estudiar las dificultades en la obtención de medidas de potencial redox estables, especialmente en aguas subterráneas procedentes de gneisses y en agua de minas con capacidades tampón redox bajas. Los potenciales redox fueron medidos cada dos minutos durante más de cinco días. Los potenciales redox medidos fueron comparados con medias de potenciales parciales, modelizados en base a determinaciones selectivas de especies de hierro y nitrógeno, los elementos predominantes redox-sensitivos. Los potenciales redox se estabilizaron de forma reproducible en minutos en una solución redox tampón y dos muestras de agua ácida de pozos de mina a pH 2.3 y 3.5. Para aguas en desequilibrio redox los análisis selectivos por especies deberían ser todavía la mejor alternativa comparados con la medida del potencial redox como una suma de parámetros para modelizar la distribución de especies. En casos en los que el potencial redox sea el único parámetro fácilmente obtenible, se recomienda una filtración y una posible acidificación para una estabilización más rápida de las medidas de potencial redox y que haya menos desviaciones entre los valores medidos y los del modelo. En las muestras investigadas se consiguió un mínimo de un 2%, sin embargo, a menudo incluso después de medidas significativamente más largas que las previamente sugeridas de 30 minutos. La estabilización final tuvo lugar después de más de varias horas en aguas con capacidad tampón baja.

     

Mineralogical–chemical composition and environmental risk potential of pond sediments at the geothermal field of Los Azufres, Mexico

Since 1982, estimated amounts of 9,400 t, 15,000 kg, 720 kg and 105 kg of Si, Fe, As and Cs respectively have accumulated at the bottom of 18 evaporation ponds as part of the geothermal production cycle at Los Azufres. This accumulation is caused by precipitation of brine solutes during the evaporation of 10% of the total pond water volume before its re-injection into the reservoir. Extraction experiments with pond precipitates and geochemical simulations with the PHREEQC program indicate the high solubility of most precipitates under natural environmental conditions. The comparisons with the primary brine composition indicate that less than 1% of most dissolved brine solutes, except for Co, Cu, Mn, Pb, Ag, Fe and Si, are accumulated at the pond bottom. Arsenic has maximum values of 160 mg/kg in the pond sediments, and Mo, Hg and Tl also exceed international environmental standards for contaminated soils. Elevated concentrations and the mobility potential of several metals and non-metals require the application of remediation techniques for the final disposal of the sediments in the future.