BIPOLE-DIPOLE FIELD DIFFERENCE—A NEW RESISTIVITY SOUNDING TECHNIQUE*

The method of field differences using two parallel bipole sources is described. The system possesses much greater resolving power and investigating depth than the conventional Schlumberger configuration. Of the two variations, the longitudinal field difference has about two and half times greater depth of investigation than the transverse one. Practical advantage of the present technique over the Schlumberger system in reducing the ambiguity in interpretation due to equivalent layered structures is demonstrated on a theoretical example.     

Impact of additional surface observation network on short range weather forecast during summer monsoon 2008 over Indian subcontinent

The three dimensional variational data assimilation scheme (3D-Var) is employed in the recently developed Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. Assimilation experiments have been conducted to assess the impact of Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) Automatic Weather Stations (AWS) surface observations (temperature and moisture) on the short range forecast over the Indian region. In this study, two experiments, CNT (without AWS observations) and EXP (with AWS observations) were made for 24-h forecast starting daily at 0000 UTC during July 2008. The impact of assimilation of AWS surface observations were assessed in comparison to the CNT experiment. The spatial distribution of the improvement parameter for temperature, relative humidity and wind speed from one month assimilation experiments demonstrated that for 24-h forecast, AWS observations provide valuable information. Assimilation of AWS observed temperature and relative humidity improved the analysis as well as 24-h forecast. The rainfall prediction has been improved due to the assimilation of AWS data, with the largest improvement seen over the Western Ghat and eastern India.     

Atmospheric aerosol characteristics retrieved using ground based solar extinction studies at Mohal in the Kullu valley of northwestern Himalayan region,India

Aerosol parameters are measured using a ground-based Multi-wavelength Radiometer (MWR) at Mohal (31.90°N, 77.11°E, 1154 m amsl) in the Kullu valley during clear sky days of a seasonal year. The study shows that the values of spectral aerosol optical depths (AODs) at 500 nm and the Ångstrom turbidity coefficient ‘β’ (a measure of columnar loading in atmosphere) are high (0.41 ± 0.03, 0.27 ± 0.01) in summer, moderate (0.30 ± 0.03, 0.15 ± 0.03) in monsoon, low (0.19 ± 0.02, 0.08 ± 0.01) in winter and lowest (0.18 ± 0.01, 0.07 ± 0.01) in autumn, respectively. The Ångstrom wavelength exponent ‘α’ (indicator of the fraction of accumulation-mode particles to coarse-mode particles) has an opposite trend having lowest value (0.64 ± 0.06) in summer, low (0.99 ± 0.10) in monsoon, moderate (1.20 ± 0.15) in winter and highest value (1.52 ± 0.03) in autumn. The annual mean value of AOD at 500 nm, ‘α’ and ‘β’ are 0.24 ± 0.01, 1.06 ± 0.09 and 0.14 ± 0.01, respectively. The fractional asymmetry factor is more negative in summer due to enhanced tourists’ arrival and also in autumn months due to the month-long International Kullu Dussehra fair. The AOD values given by MWR and satellite-based moderate resolution imaging spectro-radiometer have good correlation of 0.76, 0.92 and 0.97 on diurnal, monthly and seasonal basis, respectively. The AODs at 500 nm as well as ‘β’ are found to be highly correlated, while ‘α’ is found to be strongly anti-correlated with temperature and wind speed suggesting high AODs and turbidity but low concentration of fine particles during hot and windy days. With wind direction, the AOD and ‘β’ are found to be strongly anti-correlated, while ‘α’ is strongly correlated.     

Palaeosols in early Himalayan foreland basin sequences demonstrate latitudinal shift-related long-term climatic change

The Palaeogene sedimentary record in the Himalayan foreland basin contains palaeosols that are interpreted as reflecting changes in climate through time with the passage of the Indian Plate from the equator to 30° N latitude. To understand spatial and temporal variation in the occurrence of diagnostic palaeosol types, 12 exposed stratigraphic sections were investigated and studied in detail using petrographic and geochemical techniques, including scanning electron microscopy and X‐ray mineralogy. Oxisol (bauxite) is a karst bauxite that occurs in crudely bedded and laminated forms. It contains gibbsite, goethite and kaolinite and shows chemical index of alteration values close to 100, demonstrating intense weathering. No gradual change in the concentrations of trace and rare earth elements is recorded. However, their behaviour suggests that the Oxisol was produced by weathering of basalt under a warm and humid climate. Histosol (coal), found stratigraphically higher than Oxisols, contains woody structures dominated by vitrinite maceral. The Histosol is interpreted as having originated from an undisturbed peat developed in a swamp of high tree density under wet tropical climatic conditions. Up‐section, calcrete profiles of stages 3 and 4, containing rhizoliths, pellets, filamentous calcite and Microcodium, have developed by pedogenic processes. Large negative stable carbon (?8·5‰ to ?11·2‰) and oxygen isotope values (?8·5‰ to ?12·6‰) suggest that the studied calcretes formed under the influence of meteoric water and soil organic matter in dry sub‐tropical climatic conditions. The formation of Oxisol in a warm and humid climate was possible in the equatorial region when part of the Indian subcontinent was close to the equator. The coal developed under a humid climate when the northern tip of the Indian subcontinent reached the intertropical convergence zone, while the pedogenic calcrete formed once the sub‐tropical climatic zone was reached. Hence, it is suggested that these palaeosols formed in different climatic zones during northward drift of the Indian plate and that the drift brought them to their present positions between 30° N and 35° N within the sub‐tropical climatic zone.     

印度南部安得拉邦部分地区富含Zr、Hf、U、Th和稀土元素的古元古代钾质花岗岩

印度南部安得拉邦 Karim nagar地区 Dharmawaram的中、粗粒斑状花岗岩是一种黑云角闪花岗岩 ,含有大量的富稀有金属 ( Zr、Hf、Th)和稀土元素 (包括 Y)的矿物 ,如锆石、钍石、褐帘石、独居石、磷钇矿。从化学成分看 ,它是偏铝质 (平均 A/C N K=0 .95 )钾质 (平均K2 O 5 % )花岗岩 ,具明显的亚碱性特征。与正常的未分异花岗岩相比 ,其稀有元素 ( Zr、Hf、U、Th)和稀土元素的含量高达 8倍 ,因而 ,这些元素的含量甚丰。钾质花岗岩的野外、岩石学、地球化学和同位素资料表明 ,在其形成过程中有富硅变质沉积 -基性地壳岩 (角闪石英岩、角…