Surface properties of asteroids: A synthesis of polarimetry,radiometry, and spectrophotometry

The surface compositions of 110 asteroids are analyzed from statistically representative data sets of polarimetry as a function of phase angle, broad-band radiometry near 10 and 20 μm, and visible and near-infrared spectrophotometry. A comparison of albedos and diameters determined by polarimetry and radiometry shows that a modest upward revision of the radiometric albedo scale is needed and that a single law relating the slope of the polarization-phase curve to geometric albedo may not hold for very dark asteroids. We present reliable adopted albedos and diameters for 56 objects. Roughdi ameters for 52 additional objects are obtained from spectrophotometry using a correlation between albedo and color. Corrections for sampling bias permit investigation of asteroid compositions as a function of diameter, orbit, and other parameters.More than 90% of the minor planets fall into two broad compositional groups, defined by several optical parameters, designated by the symbols C and S. Comparisons with meteorite spectral albedo curves suggest that the two groups are compositionally similar to carbonaceous and stony-metallic meteorites, respectively. C-type asteroids predominate in the belt, especially in the outer half. An unusual distribution of compositions is found between 2.77 and 3.0 AU. Many S-type objects have diameters of 100–200 km; C-type objects are much more common at both larger and smaller sizes. Vesta is unique, being apparently the only differentiated asteroid remaining intact in the belt. The largest C-type objects are compositionally distinct from smaller ones and possibly are metamorphosed. We sketch some implications for meteoritics and for the early history of the solar system and point to the need for further systematic sampling of smaller and fainter objects by these three observational techniques.     

Textural and micro-analytical insights into mafic–felsic interactions during the Oruanui eruption,Taupo

Quenched juvenile mafic inclusions (enclaves) are an occasional but informative component in the deposits of large felsic eruptions. Typically, the groundmasses of these inclusions rapidly crystallize as the mafic magma is chilled against a more voluminous, cooler felsic host, providing a physical and chemical record of the nature and timing of mafic–felsic interactions. We examine mafic inclusions of two compositional lineages (tholeiitic and calc-alkaline) from deposits of the 25.4 ka Oruanui eruption (Taupo, New Zealand). 2-D quantitative textural data from analysis of back-scattered electron images reveal a marked diversity in the groundmass textures of the inclusions, including median crystal sizes (amphibole: 14–45 µm; plagioclase: 21–75 µm) and aspect ratios (amphibole: 1.7–4.2; plagioclase: 2.1–4.0), area number densities (amphibole: 122–2660 mm^?2; plagioclase: 117–2990 mm^?2), area fractions (?) of minerals (?_plag?=?23–45%, ?_amph?=?0–28%, ?_cpx?=?0–6%, ?_oxides?=?0.6–5.5%), and the relative abundance of plagioclase and amphibole (?_plag/?_amph?=?1.0–4.6). Textural parameters vary more significantly within, rather than between, the two compositional lineages, and in some cases show marked variations across individual clasts, implying that each inclusion’s cooling history, rather than bulk composition, was the dominant control on textural development. Groundmass mineral compositions are also diverse both within and between inclusions (e.g. plagioclase from An_34–92, with typical intra-clast variability of ~?20 mol%), and do not correlate with bulk chemistry. Diverse groundmass textures and mineral and glass chemistries are inferred to reflect complex interplay of a range of factors including the degree and rate of undercooling, bulk composition, water content and, possibly, intensive variables. Our data are inconsistent with breakup of a crystallizing ponded mafic layer at the base of the Oruanui melt-dominant body, instead implying that each inclusion partially crystallized as a discrete body with a unique cooling history. Extensive ingestion of mush-derived macro-crystals suggests that mechanical breakup of mafic feeder dikes occurred within a transition zone between the mush and melt-dominant magma body. In this zone, the mush lacked yield strength, as has been inferred from field studies of narrow (meters to few tens of meters) mush-melt transition zones preserved in composite intrusions. Evidence for plastic deformation of inclusions during eruption and the abundance of fresh residual glass in inclusions from all eruptive phases suggest that the inclusions formed syn-eruptively, and must have been formed recurrently at multiple stages throughout the eruption.     

An introduction to Maslov's asymptotic method

Summary. Familiar concepts such as asymptotic ray theory and geometrical spreading are now recognized as an asymptotic form of a more general asymptotic solution to the non-separable wave equation. In seismology, the name Maslov asymptotic theory has been attached to this solution. In its simplest form, it may be thought of as a justification of disc-ray theory and it can be reduced to the WKBJ seismogram. It is a uniformly valid asymptotic solution, though. The method involves properties of the wavefronts and ray paths of the wave equation which have been established for over a century. The integral operators which build on these properties have been investigated only comparatively recently. These operators are introduced very simply by appealing to the asymptotic Fourier transform of Ziolkowski & Deschamps. This leads quite naturally to the result that phase functions in different domains of the spatial Fourier transform are related by a Legendre transformation. The amplitude transformation can also be inferred by this method. Liouville's theorem (the incompressibility of a phase space of position and slowness) ensures that it is always possible to obtain a uniformly asymptotic solution. This theorem can be derived by methods familiar to seismologists and which do not rely on the traditional formalism of classical mechanics. It can also be derived from the sympletic property of the equations of geometrical spreading and canonical transformations in general. The symplectic property plays a central role in the theory of high-frequency beams in inhomogeneous media.     

Adaptive optics near-infrared imaging of NGC 2992 – unveiling core structures related to radio figure-of-8 loops

We present near-infrared adaptive optics, Very Large Array (VLA) radio and Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) optical imaging of the nearby Seyfert galaxy NGC 2992. Spiral structure and an extension to the west are traced down to the core region at the limiting resolution of our near-infrared images. A faint, diffuse loop of near-infrared and radio emission is also observed to the north, embedded within the prominent 2-arcsec radio loop previously observed to the north-west. Near-infrared colour maps and CO narrow-band imaging are then used to identify which regions may not be purely reddened stellar populations. Our new data provide evidence that the VLA radio-loop morphology in the shape of a figure of 8 represents two components superimposed: (1) outflow bubbles out of the plane of the disc, coincident with the extended emission-line region (EELR); (2) star formation along the spiral arm within the galaxy disc and through the dust lane. The near-infrared continuum emission associated with the outflowing radio bubbles suggests that the radio loops are driven by the active nucleus.     

Textural characteristics of sediments along the southern Red Sea coastal areas,Saudi Arabia

A lack of understanding exists of the origin and textural characteristics of Saudi Arabian Red Sea coastal sediments. This paper concerns the southern coastline of Jizan on the Saudi Red Sea. It is some 160 km long characterised by either narrow rocky headlands with intermittent pocket beaches or wide low-lying beaches dissected by wadis. Granulometric testing of samples from 135 locations showed that beach sand size was mainly very fine to medium grained (M _z = 3.93 Ø), sorting ranged from 1.65 to 0.41 and skewness values from ?051 to 0.39, being mainly negative; dune sands were medium to fine grained (M _z = 1.13 Ø; average sorting 2.8), while skewness variations within dune samples indicated symmetrical to fine skewed values (б _Ι = 0.55 to 0.89). Most foreshore samples were derived from wadis. Wadi mud levels can be high, e.g. Baysh (84%), and wadi Samrah (90%) with mean grain size ranging from very fine to medium sand (M _z = 3.9 Ø), sorting being well to poor (0.45 to 1.52) due to sediment influxes. Sabkha had a wide range of sand/mud and significantly higher carbonate percentages than other environments. Sediment source differences and littoral reworking contributed to grain size variation. The carbonate content varied between 1.5 and 31.5% due to hinterland contributions, and spatial analysis showed increasing quantities of carbonate minerals towards the south. On the wider geographical front, findings from Jizan are similar to those of the Northern United Arab Emirates (UAE), including sabkhas, being composed of sand, skeletal carbonate, fine fluvial material and wind-blown silt and clay components of wadi origin. Further work on the northeastern Red Sea edge can hopefully confirm these findings.     

A ferrotantalite-ferrotapiolite intergrowth from Spittal a.d. Drau,Carinthia, Austria

Summary Intimate intergrowths of ferrotantalite and ferrotapiolite occur in a pegmatite in Spittal a.d. Drau, Carinthia. They are associated with muscovite, albite, smoky quartz, cassiterite, and microscopic uranmicrolite, zircon and uraninite. An assemblage of secondary uranium minerals is also present, generated by extensive alteration and leaching of the uranmicrolite and zircon. Textures of the ferrotantalite-ferrotapiolite intergrowths suggest considerable recrystallization that obliterated most of their primary features; neither coprecipitation nor exsolution can be recognized with certainty. Despite intersecting tielines indicating disequilibrium, the ferrotantalite and ferrotapiolite compositions show very restricted ranges (Mn/(Mn + Fe) 0.08–0.11, Ta/(Ta + Nb) 0.53–0.57 for ferrotantalite, and 0.01–0.04, 0.84–0.89 for ferrotapiolite, respectively), particularly in comparison with compositions from other localities featuring primary textures. A degree of compositional equilibration could have been attained during recrystallization. This process may also explain the high level of structural order characterizing both minerals; they are considerably disordered in other localities. Extensive deformation typical of pegmatites in the southern Ostalpen in general, and specifically of the Spittal pegmatite, is probably responsible for the recrystallization phenomena in the Ta, Nb, Sn-bearing mineral assemblage.

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Eine Ferrotantalit-Ferrotapiolit Verwachsung von Spittal a.d. Drau, Kärnten, österreich

Zusammenfassung In einem Pegmatit von Spittal a.d. Drau, Kärnten, treten enge Verwachsungen von Ferrotantalit und Ferrotapiolit auf. Diese werden von Muskovit, Albit, Rauchquarz, Zinnstein sowie-in mikroskopischem Masstab-von Uranmikrolith und Zirkon begleitet. Die Textur der Verwachsungen lässt Rekristallisation erheblichen Ausmasses erkennen, die die primären Merkmale weitgehend auslöscht. Weder eine gemeinsame Auskristallisation der beiden Mineralphasen noch eine Bildung durch Entmischung kann mit Sicherheit erkannt werden. Trotz einander kreuzender Verbindungslinien, die einen Hinweis auf Ungleichgewicht darstellen, zeigen die Zusammensetzungen des Ferrotantalits und des Ferrotapiolits lediglich geringe Schwankungsbreiten: Mn/(Mn + Fe) 0,08–0,11, Ta/(Ta + Nb) 0,53–0,57 für den Ferrotantalit beziehungsweise 0,01–0,04 und 0,84–0,89 für den Ferrotapiolit. Dies gilt insbesondere für den Vergleich mit Zusammensetzungen solcher Mineralphasen mit jenen von Fundarten, die primäre Verwachsungstrukturen aufweisen. Bis zu einem gewissen Ausmass ist diese homogene Zusammensetzung möglicherweise auf die Rekristallisation zurück zuführen. Diese Rekristallisation könnte auch den hohen strukturellen Ordnungsgrad der beiden Mineralphasen erklären. An anderen Fundorten zeigen diese Minerale strukturell merklich geringeren Ordnungsgrad. Intensive metamorphe überprägung, wie sie für die Pegmatite in den südlichen Ostalpen und insbesondere für jenen von Spittal typisch sind, kann wahrscheinlich als Ursache der Rekristallisationsphänomene der Ta-Nb-Sn Mineralparagenese angenommen werden.

     

Characterization and cycling of atmospheric mercury along the central US Gulf Coast

Concentrations of atmospheric Hg species, elemental Hg (Hg^°), reactive gaseous Hg (RGM), and fine particulate Hg (Hg-PM_2.5) were measured at a coastal site near Weeks Bay, Alabama from April to August, 2005 and January to May, 2006. Mean concentrations of the species were 1.6 ± 0.3 ng m⁻³, 4.0 ± 7.5 pg m⁻³ and 2.7 ± 3.4 pg m⁻³, respectively. A strong diel pattern was observed for RGM (midday maximum concentrations were up to 92.7 pg m⁻³), but not for Hg^° or Hg-PM_2.5. Elevated RGM concentrations (>25 pg m⁻³) in April and May of 2005 correlated with elevated average daytime O₃ concentrations (>55 ppbv) and high light intensity (>500 W m⁻²). These conditions generally corresponded with mixed continental-Gulf and exclusively continental air mass trajectories. Generally lower, but still elevated, RGM peaks observed in August, 2005 and January–March, 2006 correlated significantly (p < 0.05) with peaks in SO₂ concentration and corresponded to periods of high light intensity and lower average daytime O₃ concentrations. During these times air masses were dominated by trajectories that originated over the continent. Elevated RGM concentrations likely resulted from photochemical oxidation of Hg^° by atmospheric oxidants. This process may have been enhanced in and by the near-shore environment relative to inland sites. The marine boundary layer itself was not found to be a significant source of RGM.     

Thermal regime at the Upper Stillwater dam site, Uinta mountains, Utah: Implications for terrain, microclimate and structural corrections in heat flow studies

A detailed study of the subsurface thermal regime at the Upper Stillwater dam site, Uinta Mountains, northeast Utah, has been made. Temperature measurements were made in 36 drillholes located within a 1 km² area and ranging in depth from 20 to 97 m. Holes less than about 40 m deep were used only to obtain information about spatial variations in mean annual surface temperature. Several holes in or near talus slopes at the sides of the canyons have temperature minima approaching 0°C between 10 and 20 m indicating the presence of year-round ice at the base of the talus. Another set of holes show transient thermal effects of surface warming resulting from clearing of a construction site 3.5 years prior to our measurements. Most of the remaining holes show conductive behavior and have gradients ranging from 13° to 17°C km⁻¹. Measurements made on 44 core samples yield a thermal conductivity of 5.6 (std. dev. 0.35) W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ for the Precambrian quartzite present. Surface heat flow estimates for these holes range from 70 to 100 mW m⁻². However, the local disturbance of the thermal field by topography and microclimate is considerable. A finite difference method used to model these effects yielded a locally corrected Upper Stillwater heat flow of about 75 mW m⁻². A final correction to account for the effects of refraction of heat from the low conductivity sedimentary rocks in the Uinta Basin into the high conductivity quartzite at the dam site, produced a regionally corrected Upper Stillwater heat flow between 60 and 65 mW m⁻². This value is consistent with the observed heat flow of 60 mW m⁻² in the Green River Basin to the north and the Uinta Basin to the south.     

Maritime tsunami evacuation guidelines for the Pacific Northwest coast of Oregon

Recent tsunamis affecting the West Coast of the USA have resulted in significant damage to ports and harbors, as well as to recreational and commercial vessels attempting to escape the tsunami. With the completion of tsunami inundation simulations for a distant tsunami originating from the Aleutian Islands and a locally generated tsunami on the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ), the State of Oregon is now able to provide guidance on the magnitudes and directions of the simulated currents for the Oregon coast and shelf region. Our analyses indicate that first wave arrivals for an Aleutian Island event would take place on the north coast,?~?3 h 40 min after the start of the earthquake,?~?20 min later on the southern Oregon coast. The simulations demonstrated significant along-coast variability in both the tsunamis water levels and currents, caused by localized bathymetric effects (e.g., submarine banks and reefs). A locally generated CSZ event would reach the open coast within 7–13 min; maximum inundation occurs at?~?30–40 min. As the tsunami current velocities increase, the potential for damage in ports and harbors correspondingly increases, while also affecting a vessels ability to maintain control out on the ocean. Scientific consensus suggests that tsunami currents?<?1.54 m/s are unlikely to impact maritime safety in ports and harbors. No such guidance is available for boats operating on the ocean, though studies undertaken in Japan suggest that velocities in the region of 1–2 m/s may be damaging to boats. In addition to the effects of currents, there is the added potential for wave amplification of locally generated wind waves interacting with opposing tsunami currents in the offshore. Our analyses explore potential wave amplification effects for a range of generic sea states, ultimately producing a nomogram of wave amplification for a range of wave and opposing current conditions. These data will be useful for US Coast Guard and Port authorities as they evaluate maritime tsunami evacuation options for the Oregon coast. Finally, we identify three regions of hazard (high, moderate, and low) across the Oregon shelf, which can be used to help guide final designation of tsunami maritime evacuation zones for the coast.