Rhodolith-bearing limestones as transgressive marker beds: fossil and modern examples from North Island, New Zealand

Rhodoliths are nodular structures composed mainly of the superimposed thalli of calcareous red algae. Because their development is controlled by an array of ecological parameters, rhodoliths are a valuable source of palaeoenvironmental information. However, despite their common use in palaeoecological reconstructions, the stratigraphic significance of rhodolith accumulations seldom has been addressed in detail. In a study of Cenozoic rhodolith‐bearing deposits from the North Island of New Zealand, rhodolithic units, usually of limited lateral extent, typically occur above major unconformities at the base of deepening upwards successions. Two types of transgressive rhodolith‐bearing deposits may be distinguished on the basis of texture and rhodolith internal structure: (i) type A deposits are clast‐supported rhodolithic rudstones containing abundant pebbles and cobbles reworked from the substrate, and are characterized by rhodoliths with a compact concentric to columnar internal structure and a high nucleus to algal cover ratio; (ii) type B deposits are rhodolithic floatstones with a matrix usually consisting of bryozoan fragments, benthic foraminifera and echinoid fragments or terrigenous silty fine sand. The rhodoliths of type B units usually have a loose internal framework with irregular to branched crusts. The two contrasting rhodolith‐bearing units are interpreted as characteristic facies of transgressive systems tract deposits, analogous to shell concentrations formed under conditions of low net sedimentation. Type A deposits are correlated with relatively high‐energy settings and/or narrow submerged palaeotopographic lows, whereas type B deposits are interpreted as forming in lower‐energy settings. The association between transgression and development of rhodolithic facies is confirmed by observations of a modern rhodolith production site at Whangaparaoa Peninsula in North Island, where algal nodules grow above a ravinement surface cut during the Holocene sea‐level rise, and also by a review of published fossil examples, many of which show stratigraphic and compositional attributes analogous to those of the New Zealand occurrences. The review indicates that transgressive rhodolith accumulations develop more commonly in, but are not restricted to, non‐tropical settings. It is suggested that a combination of factors, such as low net sedimentary input, nature of the substrate, sea‐level rise and inherited physiography contribute to determine the relationship between rhodolith‐bearing deposits and transgressive settings.     

ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS,USA AND CANADA

The Rocky Mountains in the USA and Canada encompass the interior cordillera of western North America, from the southern Yukon to northern New Mexico. Annual weather patterns are cold in winter and mild in summer. Precipitation has high seasonal and interannual variation and may differ by an order of magnitude between geographically close locales, depending on slope, aspect and local climatic and orographic conditions. The region's hydrology is characterized by the accumulation of winter snow, spring snowmelt and autumnal baseflows. During the 2–3-month ‘spring runoff’ period, rivers frequently discharge > 70% of their annual water budget and have instantaneous discharges 10–100 times mean low flow. Complex weather patterns characterized by high spatial and temporal variability make predictions of future conditions tenuous. However, general patterns are identifiable; northern and western portions of the region are dominated by maritime weather patterns from the North Pacific, central areas and eastern slopes are dominated by continental air masses and southern portions receive seasonally variable atmospheric circulation from the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico. Significant interannual variations occur in these general patterns, possibly related to ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation) forcing. Changes in precipitation and temperature regimes or patterns have significant potential effects on the distribution and abundance of plants and animals. For example, elevation of the timber-line is principally a function of temperature. Palaeolimnological investigations have shown significant shifts in phyto- and zoo-plankton populations as alpine lakes shift between being above or below the timber-line. Likewise, streamside vegetation has a significant effect on stream ecosystem structure and function. Changes in stream temperature regimes result in significant changes in community composition as a consequence of bioenergetic factors. Stenothermic species could be extirpated as appropriate thermal criteria disappear. Warming temperatures may geographically isolate cold water stream fishes in increasingly confined headwaters. The heat budgets of large lakes may be affected resulting in a change of state between dimictic and warm monomictic character. Uncertainties associated with prediction are increased by the planting of fish in historically fishless, high mountain lakes and the introduction of non-native species of fishes and invertebrates into often previously simple food-webs of large valley bottom lakes and streams. Many of the streams and rivers suffer from the anthropogenic effects of abstraction and regulation. Likewise, many of the large lakes receive nutrient loads from a growing human population. We concluded that: (1) regional climate models are required to resolve adequately the complexities of the high gradient landscapes; (2) extensive wilderness preserves and national park lands, so prevalent in the Rocky Mountain Region, provide sensitive areas for differentiation of anthropogenic effects from climate effects; and (3) future research should encompass both short-term intensive studies and long-term monitoring studies developed within comprehensive experimental arrays of streams and lakes specifically designed to address the issue of anthropogenic versus climatic effects. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A structural model from local earthquake tomography: Application to present-day tectonics of the Upper Rhine Graben

We present a novel numerical approach to construct quantitative tectonic models from crustal velocity distributions derived from local earthquake tomography. Independent constraints on the location and orientation of structures are obtained from earthquake hypocenters and seismic reflection profiles. An application of this method is given for the southern end of the Upper Rhine Graben (northwestern Europe). Kinematic boundary conditions are imposed on the structural model to investigate the large scale intraplate deformation in the region. A 3-D finite element code is used to calculate the displacements, the distribution of stresses, and the potential for brittle failure in the Graben. The modeling takes into account the intersection and curvature of crustal faults. The results demonstrate the dependence of fault interaction in the system on kinematic conditions, as well as the influence of minor faults on the kinematics of major basin bounding master faults. We show that although most of the deformation in the region is taken up by the eastern boundary faults of the Rhine Graben, all faults in the system have the potential to be (re)activated. In particular, a fault system underlying the front of the Jura fold and thrust belt appears to accommodate a large part of the intraplate deformation.     

The Effect of Postcumulus Reactions on Composition of Chrome-spinels from the Jimberlana Intrusion

Chromites in olivine adcumulates, mesocumulates and orthocumulatesfrom drill core of the Jimberlana intrusion have been analysedand related to the cumulate type and to the nature of the surroundingsilicate mineral. Chromites in adcumulates and mesocumulatesshow a restricted range of composition and are high in Mg, Aland Cr. The orthocumulate chromites vary in composition fromthat found in adcumulates to chromites which are much higherin Fe and Ti and with a higher Fe^3?: Fe^2? ratio. The chromitesin orthocumulates vary in composition depending upon the natureof the enclosing silicate mineral. This is believed to reflectthe ability of the enclosing mineral to protect the originalcumulus chromite from reaction with the intercumulus liquid.Thus chromite within early bronzite oikocrysts was protectedfrom reaction whereas that in plagioclase and phlogopite wasprotected at a much later stage and has a higher Fe and Ti contentChromite within olivine appears to have been able to equilibratewith intercumulus liquid until late in the magmatic historyexcept where the olivine enclosing chromite has itself beensurrounded by bronzite. It is suggested that chromite can exchangeelements with intercumulus liquid through the olivine. Thereare two possibilities; either elements such as Cr, Al, Ti andFe^{3 ?} were able to diffuse through the olivine structure orthe apparently enclosed chromite crystals were able to maintaindirect contact with the melt along fine fractures produced bythe differential thermal contraction of olivine and chromite. The average diameters of chromite crystals within orthocumulatebronzite and olivine are 28 and 20 microns respectively whereaschromites in plagioclase and phlogopite have average diametersof 48 and 56 microns. There is no obvious correlation betweenthe size of the chromite and their composition for grains foundwithin a particular silicate. Chromites of every size have beenable to equilibrate with the liquid unless they were protectedfrom reaction. Nucleation of reaction products played an important role indetermining the final composition of any particular chromitecrystal. The significance of reaction and nucleation on a localscale of millimetres is considered with respect to the majorsilicates and to the location of the last liquid. It is suggestedthat the last liquid tended to concentrate in pockets of reactantcrystals, where product crystals failed to nucleate until latein the magmatic history. It is estimated that in rocks withan orthocumulate texture, the intercumulus liquid crystallizedover a temperature range as large as 300 ?C and that it becamesignificantly more oxidizing near the solidus temperature.     

CONTROLS ON SURFACE WATER CHEMISTRY IN THE UPPER MERCED RIVER BASIN,YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK,CALIFORNIA

Surface water draining granitic bedrock in Yosemite National Park exhibits considerable variability in chemical composition, despite the relative homogeneity of bedrock chemistry. Other geological factors, including the jointing and distribution of glacial till, appear to exert strong controls on water composition. Chemical data from three surface water surveys in the upper Merced River basin conducted in August 1981, June 1988 and August 1991 were analysed and compared with mapped geological, hydrological and topographic features to identify the solute sources and processes that control water chemistry within the basin during baseflow. Water at most of the sampling sites was dilute, with alkalinities ranging from 26 to 77 μequiv. l⁻¹. Alkalinity was much higher in two subcatchments, however, ranging from 51 to 302 μequiv. l⁻¹. Base cations and silica were also significantly higher in these two catchments than in the rest of the watershed. Concentrations of weathering products in surface water were correlated to the fraction of each subcatchment underlain by surficial material, which is mostly glacial till. Silicate mineral weathering is the dominant control on concentrations of alkalinity, silica and base cations, and ratios of these constituents in surface water reflect the composition of local bedrock. Chloride concentrations in surface water samples varied widely, ranging from <1 to 96 μequiv. l⁻¹. The annual volume-weighted mean chloride concentration in the Merced River at the Happy Isles gauge from 1968 to 1990 was 26 μequiv. l⁻¹, which was five times higher than in atmospheric deposition (4–5 μequiv. l⁻¹), suggesting that a source of chloride exists within the watershed. Saline groundwater springs, whose locations are probably controlled by vertical jointing in the bedrock, are the most likely source of the chloride. Sulphate concentrations varied much less than most other solutes, ranging from 3 to 14 μequiv. l⁻¹. Concentrations of sulphate in quarterly samples collected at the watershed outlet also showed relatively little variation, suggesting that sulphate may be regulated to some extent by a within-watershed process, such as sulphate adsorption.     

An Observational View of Relationships Between Moisture Aggregation,Cloud, and Radiative Heating Profiles

Data from several coincident satellite sensors are analyzed to determine the dependence of cloud and precipitation characteristics of tropical regions on the variance in the water vapor field. Increased vapor variance is associated with decreased high cloud fraction and an enhancement of low-level radiative cooling in dry regions of the domain. The result is found across a range of sea surface temperatures and rain rates. This suggests the possibility of an enhanced low-level circulation feeding the moist convecting areas when vapor variance is large. These findings are consistent with idealized models of self-aggregation, in which the aggregation of convection is maintained by a combination of low-level radiative cooling in dry regions and mid-to-upper-level radiative warming in cloudy regions.     

Image‐intensified video results from the 1998 Leonid shower: I. Atmospheric trajectories and physical structure

Abstract— Two‐station electro‐optical observations of the 1998 Leonid shower are presented. Precise heights and light curves were obtained for 79 Leonid meteors that ranged in brightness (at maximum luminosity) from +0.3 to +6.1 astronomical magnitude. The mean photometric mass of the data sample was 1.4 × 10^?6 kg. The dependence of astronomical magnitude at peak luminosity on photometric mass and zenith angle was consistent with earlier studies of faint sporadic meteors. For example, a Leonid meteoroid with a photometric mass of ～1.0 × 10‐⁷ kg corresponds to a peak meteor luminosity of about +4.5 astronomical magnitudes. The mean beginning height of the Leonid meteors in this sample was 112.6 km and the mean ending height was 95.3 km. The highest beginning height observed was 144.3 km. There is relatively little dependence of either the first or last heights on mass, which is indicative of meteoroids that have clustered into constituent grains prior to the onset of intensive grain ablation. The height distribution, combined with numerical modelling of the ablation of the meteoroids, suggests that silicate‐like materials are not the principal component of Leonid meteoroids and hints at the presence of a more volatile component. Light curves of many Leonid meteors were examined for evidence of the physical structure of the associated meteoroids: similar to the 1997 Leonid meteors, the narrow, nearly symmetric curves imply that the meteoroids are not solid objects. The light curves are consistent with a dustball structure.     

An experimental test of Henry's Law in solid metal‐liquid metal systems with implications for iron meteorites

Abstract— Experimental solid metal‐liquid metal partition coefficients have been used to model the crystallization of magmatic iron meteorites and understand the evolution of asteroid cores. However, the majority of the partitioning experiments have been conducted with trace elements doped at levels that are orders of magnitude higher than measured in iron meteorites. Concern about Henry's Law and the unnatural doping levels have been cited as one reason that two recent iron meteorite studies have dismissed the experimental partition coefficients in their modeling. Using laser ablation ICP‐MS analysis, this study reports experimentally determined solid metal‐liquid metal trace element partition coefficients from runs doped down to the levels occurring in iron meteorites. The analyses for 12 trace elements (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Ge, Ir, Os, Pd, Pt, Re, and W) show no deviations from Henry's Law, and these results support decades of experimental work in which the partition coefficients were assumed to be independent of trace element concentration. Further, since our experiments are doped with natural levels of trace elements, the partitioning results are directly applicable to iron meteorites and should be used when modeling their crystallization. In contrast, our new Ag data are inconsistent with previous studies, suggesting the high Ag‐content in previous studies may have influenced the measured Ag partitioning behavior.     

Nitrogen fluxes in a high elevation colorado rocky mountain basin

Measured, calculated and simulated values were combined to develop an annual nitrogen budget for Loch Vale Watershed (LVWS) in the Colorado Front Range. Nine-year average wet nitrogen deposition values were 1·6 (s=0·36) kg NO₃-N ha⁻¹, and 1·0 (s=0·3) kg NH₄-N ha⁻¹. Assuming dry nitrogen deposition to be half that of measured wet deposition, this high elevation watershed receives 3·9 kg N ha⁻¹. Although deposition values fluctuated with precipitation, measured stream nitrogen outputs were less variable. Of the total N input to the watershed (3·9 kg N ha⁻¹ wet plus dry deposition), 49% of the total N input was immobilized. Stream losses were 2·0 kg N ha⁻¹ (1125 kg measured dissolved inorganic N in 1992, 1–2 kg calculated dissolved organic N, plus an average of 203 kg algal N from the entire 660 ha watershed). Tundra and aquatic algae were the largest reservoirs for incoming N, at approximately 18% and 15% of the total 2574 kg N deposition, respectively. Rocky areas and forest stored the remaining 11% and 5%, respectively. Fully 80% of N losses from the watershed came from the 68% of LVWS that is alpine. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.