A statistical study of underestimates of wind speeds by VHF radar

Comparisons are made between horizontal wind measurements carried out using a VHF-radar system at Aberystwyth (52.4°N, 4.1°W) and radiosondes launched from Aberporth, some 50 km to the southwest. The radar wind results are derived from Doppler wind measurements at zenith angles of 6° in two orthogonal planes and in the vertical direction. Measurements on a total of 398 days over a 2-year period are considered, but the major part of the study involves a statistical analysis of data collected during 75 radiosonde flights selected to minimise the spatial separation of the two sets of measurements. Whereas good agreement is found between the two sets of wind direction, radar-derived wind speeds show underestimates of 4–6% compared with radiosonde values over the height range 4–14 km. Studies of the characteristics of this discrepancy in wind speeds have concentrated on its directional dependence, the effects of the spatial separation of the two sets of measurements, and the influence of any uncertainty in the radar measurements of vertical velocities. The aspect sensitivity of radar echoes has previously been suggested as a cause of underestimates of wind speeds by VHF radar. The present statistical treatment and case-studies show that an appropriate correction can be applied using estimates of the effective radar beam angle derived from a comparison of echo powers at zenith angles of 4.2° and 8.5°.     

Comparison of Fiberglass and Other Polymeric Well Casings, Part I: Susceptibility to Degradation by Chemicals

Previous research has shown that the most commonly used well casing materials-stainless steel. polyvinyl chloride (PVC). and polytetra-fluoroethylene (PTFE)-are not suited for all monitoring environments and applications. This study is part of a series of experiments that were conducted to determine the suitability of four other polymeric well casing materials-acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), fluorinalcd ethylene propylene (FHP), fiberglass-reinlorced epoxy (FRE), and fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP)- for use in ground water monitoring wells. In these studies, these four materials were compared with two other commonly used polymeric well casings, PVC and PTFE. Part I of these studies examines the resistance of these materials to degradation by chemicals. Future reports will consider sorption and leaching of organic and metal contaminants.
In this study, the six materials were exposed to 28 neat organic compounds (including one acid) and to extremely acidic and alkaline aqueous solutions for up to 112 days. This was done to simulate the most aggressive environments to which monitoring well casings may be exposed. The casings were observed for changes in weight and signs of physical degradation (swelling, softening, deterioration, or dissolution).
The two fluorinated polymers (FEP and PTFE) were not degraded by any of the lest chemicals. Among the nonfluorinated products tested. FRE was the most inert. Three organic chemicals caused the glass fibers to separate. and two organic solvents caused weight gains exceeding 10 percent. ABS was the most readily degraded material tested. By the end of the study, only the acid and alkaline solutions had little effect on ABS. FRP was more severely degraded by the organic chemicals than FRH but was less affected than PVC. FRP and FRE. lost weight when exposed to the highly acidic conditions.     

Genetic relationship of rift-stage crustal structure, terrane accretion, and foreland tectonics along the southern Appalachian-Ouachita orogen

Abrupt along-strike variations in tectonostratigraphic composition, internal structural style, and detachment level in the southern Appalachian and Ouachita foreland thrust belts are defined at a large-scale bend in strike and a truncation of Ouachita structures by the frontal Appalachian thrust fault. The along-strike variations correspond to differences in the pre-orogenic rifted Laurentian margin, in the history and nature of terrane accretion, and in the response of the foreland to these differences. Within the Ouachita embayment of the Laurentian margin, diachronous arc-continent collision migrated northwestward along a rift-stage transform margin from the Black Warrior foreland basin on the southeast in Late Mississippian time to a short-wavelength, high-amplitude foreland basin (Arkoma basin) on the northwest in front of the Ouachita thrust-belt salient in Early-Middle Pennsylvanian time. Off-shelf, deep-water strata of both passive-margin and synorogenic facies comprise an accretionary prism and subduction complex, and the Ouachita allochthon consists of mud-dominated thrust sheets that are internally disharmonic and folded. The allochthon of off-shelf strata was thrust over the passive-margin carbonate shelf, which remains in the Ouachita footwall. Along the southeast side of the Alabama promontory of the Laurentian margin, passive-margin shelf carbonates are imbricated in the Appalachian thrust belt, which is characterized by internally coherent thrust sheets and high-amplitude frontal ramps. The palinspastic extent of shelf-carbonate rocks corresponds to the extent of structurally shallow basement rocks on the upper-plate rift-stage margin of the Alabama promontory of Laurentian crust. Terranes accreted to the Laurentian margin during the Taconic and Acadian orogenies were driven over the shallow basement by continent-continent collision of Laurentia with Africa (Gondwana). Emplacement of the thrust-translated terranes tectonically stripped and replaced the shelf carbonate. The frontal thrust fault of the Appalachian thrust belt truncates the southeastern end of the slightly older frontal Ouachita thrust belt, as well as the southeastern part of the greater Black Warrior basin in the Ouachita foreland. Shallow basement beneath the Appalachian thrust belt extends cratonward beneath the low-amplitude Appalachian foreland basin.     

Lake Koronia, Greece: Shift from autotrophy to heterotrophy with cultural eutrophication and progressive water-level reduction

Lake Koronia, a Ramsar site, is shallow, polymictic, hypertrophic and until recently was aerially the fourth largest lake in Greece. Although exceeding 5 m in the past, lake depth has declined progressively from 3.8 m in 1980 to < 1 m in 1997, reducing surface area and water volume by 50% and 80%, respectively. Specific conductivityincreased from 1300 μS cm⁻¹ in 1977 to >6000 μS cm⁻¹ in 1991. Increased phosphate concentrations from the late 1970's (8–45 μg L⁻¹) to the late 1990's (100–1000 μg L⁻¹) document that the previously eutrophic system with a limited littoral zone switched to hypertrophy dominated by massive cyanobacteria blooms. Oxygen saturation of the water column increased progressively from about 80% in 1983 to full saturation about 1993, after which it decreased progressively to only 20% saturation in 1997. In spite of cyanobacteria dominance, community metabolism of the lake switched from progressively increasing autotrophy to rapidly advancing heterotrophy associated with progressive water-level reduction leading to fish extirpation in the lake.     

Sampling Fauna in Stream Sediments as well as Groundwater Using One Net Sampler

Groundwater bores act as traps. Net samplers are regularly used for sampling this type of trap for fauna. To enable direct comparisons of faunal communities in groundwater bores and stream sediments, stream sediment tubes were built similar to groundwater bores and were sampled with net samplers for fauna. These stream sediment tubes consisted of a tube anchored in the stream sediment, also called interstitial space. To test the efficacy of this trap method in stream sediments, it was compared to another type of trap, Hahn's trap. Faunal communities sampled by a net in the stream sediment tubes did not differ hugely from fauna in Hahn's trap samples. Physical and chemical factors of sampled water in both the stream sediment tubes, the surrounding interstitial sediments and the second type of traps, Hahn's traps, showed that water in both the tubes and Hahn's traps was closely related to interstitial water. The net sampler is inexpensive and easy to handle. It is suggested that sampling stream tubes with nets may be an appropriate method for long‐term monitoring studies.