Zur Struktur der Wolken

Zusammenfassung Die vonRittberger aufgestelleten Arbeitshypothesen über den Zusammenhang zwischen Tropfenspektren und Niederschlag gelten primär für den Feldberg (Schwarzwald, 1500 m ü. NN.). Die vorliegenden Messungen vom Jungfraujoch (3550 m ü. NN.) ergänzen und bestätigen im allgemeinen die Ergebnisse vonRittberger. Die Mittelwerte der Wolkenelemente schwanken etwa in den gleichen Grenzen. Auf Jungfraujoch sind breite Spektren etwas häufiger und die Tropfenanzhal geringer als auf dem Feldberg. Die Grenzwerte zwischen Tropfendurchmesser und Temperatur erfahren eine wesentliche Erweiterung zu tieferen Temperaturen.Die Hochnebellagen auf Jungfraujoch sind durch Stau bedingt, und die Tropfengröße ändert sich von der Wolkenuntergrenze (klein) zur Wolkenobergrenze (groß). Die Gleichgewichtsgröße an der Wolkenobergrenze wird durch die darüber liegende Bewölkung bestimmt.Auf Jungfraujoch überwiegen die breiten Spektren, schmale scheinen an Wolkenunter- und-obergrenzen gebunden zu sein. Dabei ist schwer zu entscheiden, inwieweit geschmolzene Kristalle breite Tropfenspektren vortäuschen. Eindeutig ist das starke Überwiegen breiter Spektren bei großräumigem Niederschlag im Tal.Diese Feststellung läßt sich bei der Bearbeitung der einzelnen Wetterlagen bestätigen. Ergiebige Regen im Tal sind mit starken Abkühlungen in der freien Atmosphäre und breiten Tropfenspektren verbunden. Dabei tritt mit Einsetzen des Regens im Tal in drei von vier Fällen auf dem Jungfraujoch ein Rückgang der Tropfenanzahl um eine Zehnerpotenz ein.

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Summary Rittberger's working hypotheses on the relation between drop spectra and precipitation are primarily valid for the Feldberg (Black Forest, 1500 m a. s. l.). The present measurements from Jungfraujoch (3550 m) complete and confirm in general the results ofRittberger. The mean values of cloud elements vary in about the same limits. On Jungfraujoch broad spectra are slightly more frequent and the number of drops per unit is smaller than on the Feldberg. The limits between drop diameter and temperature show a considerable extension towards lower temperatures.The layers of elevated fog on Jungfraujoch are conditioned by barrage and the drop size varies from the lower (small drops) to the upper (larger drops) cloud border. The equivalent quantity at the upper cloud border is determined by the cloudiness above.On Jungfraujoch broad spectra prevail, small ones seem to be restricted to lower and upper cloud borders, whereby it is difficult to decide, in how far melted crystals give the impression of broad drop spectra. Strong prevailing of broad spectra with large-scale precipitation in the valley is well established.This result is confirmed by a discussion of the weather situations. Rich precipitations in the valley are combined with considerable cooling in the upper air and broad drop spectra. Precipitatons in the valley are on Jungfraujoch in three of four cases accompanied by a reduction of the drop number with a power of ten.

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Résumé Les hypothèses de travail établies parRittberger sur les rapports existant entre le spectre des gouttes et les précipitations ne sont valables, à l'origine, que pour le Feldberg (Forêt Noire, 1500 m d'altitude). Les mesures effectuées au Jungfraujoch (3550 m), mesures qui sont présentées ici, viennent compléter et en général confirmer les résultats obtenus parRittberger. Les valeurs moyennes des éléments de nuages oscillent à peu près entre les mêmes limites. Les spectres largement étalés sont un peu plus fréquent et le nombre des gouttes plus petit au Jungfraujoch qu'au Feldberg. Les valeurs limites entre le diamètre des gouttes et la température s'étendent notablement en direction des basses températures.Les situations de brouillard élevé sont provoquées au Jungfraujoch par un effet de barrage et la grosseur des gouttes augmente de la base (petites gouttes) au sommet (grosses gouttes) du nuage. La valeur d'équilibre à la limite supérieure des nuages est déterminée par la nébulosité située au-dessus.Les spectres largement étalés sont en majorité au Jungfraujoch. Les spectres étroits y semblent liés à la base et au sommet des nuages. Il est cependant difficile de déterminer dans quelle mesure des cristaux fondus donnent l'illusion de spectres largement étalés. Ces derniers sont plus fréquents, et cela de façon absolument certaine, lorsque des précipitations étendues s'abatten en plaine.Cette constatation est confirmée par l'étude des situations météorologiques. Des précipitations abondantes en plaine sont liées à un fort refroidissement de l'atmosphère libre et à des spectres de gouttes largement étalés. Au moment du début des précipitations en plaine, on constate trois fois sur quatre une diminuation d'une puissance de 10 du nombre des gouttes au Jungfraujoch.

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Mit 6 Textabbildungen     

Predicting suitable habitat for the cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa (Scleractinia)

Ecological-niche factor analysis (ENFA) was applied to the reef framework-forming cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa. The environmental tolerances of this species were assessed using readily available oceanographic data, including physical, chemical, and biological variables. L. pertusa was found at mean depths of 468 and 480 m on the regional and global scales and occupied a niche that included higher than average current speed and productivity, supporting the theory that their limited food supply is locally enhanced by currents. Most records occurred in areas with a salinity of 35, mean temperatures of 6.2–6.7  °C and dissolved oxygen levels of 6.0–6.2 ml l⁻¹. The majority of records were found in areas that were saturated with aragonite but had low concentration of nutrients (silicate, phosphate, and nitrate). Suitable habitat for L. pertusa was predicted using ENFA on a global and a regional scale that incorporated the north-east Atlantic Ocean. Regional prediction was reliable due to numerous presence points throughout the area, whereas global prediction was less reliable due to the paucity of presence data outside of the north-east Atlantic. However, the species niche was supported at each spatial scale. Predicted maps at the global scale reinforced the general consensus that the North Atlantic Ocean is a key region in the worldwide distribution of L. pertusa. Predictive modelling is an approach that can be applied to cold-water coral species to locate areas of suitable habitat for further study. It may also prove a useful tool to assist spatial planning of offshore marine protected areas. However, issues with eco-geographical datasets, including their coarse resolution and limited geographical coverage, currently restrict the scope of this approach.     

Crustal transit time monitoring using PKP

The arrival time difference for the AB branch of PKP from deep Tonga earthquakes is constant over years with a standard deviation of ±0.05 seconds at seismographs located 10 to 50 km from each other. If published travel time curves are used to calculate the relative residuals of PKP the standard deviation from the constant mean is improved by approximately 0.01 seconds for AB branch data. For the BC branch, standard deviations of relative travel times of ±0.06 seconds are reduced to less than ±0.05 seconds by calculating relative residuals. We conclude that changes of crustal transit time forP-waves could be resolved, based on careful PKP arrival time measurement at two or more neighboring stations if the changes exceed 0.05 sec and last for more than one year. The conditions for achieving this result are that PKP from Tonga earthquakes is clearly recorded, and that time-keeping is accurate. The data on which these conclusions are based were obtained from the Graefenberg seismograph array, which is located in West Gemany and consists of 13 stations separated by distances of 10 km to 100 km. We propose that relative arrival times of PKP from Tonga could be used in the Mediterranean - Middle East area to search for precursory travel time changes before large earthquakes.     

Optimization of mooring observations in Northern Bering Sea

The problem of the optimal sampling strategy for moored current velocity observations in the Northern Bering Sea is addressed. We analyze dynamically induced correlations in the North Bering Sea currents and conduct their sensitivity analysis to optimize positions of a limited number of moorings. Optimization of the sampling strategy is performed with respect to robustness of the reconstruction of the North Bering Sea circulation with a particular emphasis on the accurate monitoring of the mean Bering Strait transport. Computations reveal four major regions in the North Bering Sea basin that are highly correlated with the Bering Strait transport. Apart from the regions within the Bering Strait itself, they include the Anadyr Strait and a region 100 km south of the Cape of Prince of Wales. Results of the sensitivity analysis are tested in the framework of twin data experiments with the quasi-stationary and oscillatory background circulations.     

阿拉斯加输油管的设计和施工方式方案变更过程及其背后的原因和哲学思想

阿拉斯加输油管道公司曾经研发和使用了3种主要施工方案和技术:传统地埋式、特殊埋设和地上敷设方式.在传统地埋式施工方案中,管顶埋深变化于0.9~2.7 m.这主要是考虑了地形变化,而不是沿途的岩性和土壤类型.在特殊埋设方案中,在原油管道必须埋设的地段,如大规模动物迁徙常用地段则使用通道冷液循环降(保)温系统和(或)热管(桩)降(保)温,来保护多年冻土.地上敷设方案包括桩基架设和地上洁净砾石管堤(垫护层).后者只在管道进入和离开多年冻土时采用.架设桩基横梁方案中使用有或没有热管保温的垂直支架梁(单元)(VSM).在初步规划和设计阶段,管道的业主公司(即横穿阿拉斯加管道系统,或TAPS)和随后的阿拉斯加管道服务公司(APSC)不容商量的坚决要求100%的埋设方案.但是,随着勘察工作的进展和设计方案的细化,施工设计方案在不断变化.1977年管道施工结束时,只有57%的管道采用了埋设方式.管道运行30 a后的今天(考虑运行期间维护中所产生的问题),很多经验丰富的工程师认为53%的埋设可能更合理.设计和施工方案变更的原因主要有:1)为了获得通过联邦政府所属的土地所需的许可证,政府有特殊的规定和要求;2)管道公司的设计、施工和管理人员进行了现场野外调查、研究,并积极参与了详细设计和研发;3)美国环境政策法案(NEPA)的最新要求(启用了核准制).阿拉斯加管道服务公司是7家主要石油公司的服务机构.由于这个项目的巨大规模和所涉及的高昂费用,致使各大石油公司的工程师非同寻常程度的参与.在文章中,笔者论述了与阿拉斯加管道施工有关的阿拉斯加管道服务公司、美国联邦和阿拉斯加州政府相关组织机构的形成历史,管道设计演变过程及其背后的哲学思想,以及阿拉斯加管道工程项目的经验和教训.     

Economic gains of liberalising access to fishing quotas within the European Union

This paper analyses the extent to which specialisation gains can be achieved by liberalising access to fishing quotas within the European Union (EU). Fishing quotas are today exchanged between EU member states at a rate of 4% of total turnover in EU fisheries. Germany, Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlands are the most active. Only one fourth of these exchanges are permanent. With the management systems in EU fisheries differing among countries, comparative advantages in fisheries exist in member states with the best management practices. Hence, although positive but small specialisation gains exist in EU fisheries today, these gains might potentially be increased by liberalising access to fishing quotas and allowing transferability of quotas between individuals from different countries on a permanent basis. Increasing the gains might, however, affect relative stability.     

Element signatures of subduction-zone fluids. An experimental study of the element partitioning (Dfluid/rock) of natural partly altered igneous rocks from the ODP drilling site 1,256

The trace element signatures of fluids were investigated by leaching experiments on natural samples of partly altered mafic igneous rocks recovered from the drilling site 1,256 of ODP Leg 206 on the Cocos plate (Central America). Experiments with ultrapure water were performed at 400 °C/0.4 GPa and 500 °C/0.7 GPa. Both fluids and residual solids were examined to obtain the partition coefficients (D^fluid/rock) of various trace elements. Element partition coefficients (D^fluid/rock) obtained at 500 °C/0.7 GPa are significantly lower compared to results obtained at 400 °C/0.4 GPa, which is in contrast to observations at higher pressures (2.2–6 GPa) and temperatures between 700 and 1,400 °C (Kessel et al. in Earth Planet Sci Lett 237: 873–892, 2005a; Spandler et al. in Chem Geol 239: 228–249, 2007). This finding may indicate a considerable pressure effect on the leaching processes and strongly divergent fluid–rock interactions in the upper part of a subduction zone at 0.4–0.7 GPa compared to deeper subduction areas with higher pressures. Furthermore, this may be interpreted as one of the earliest fractionation processes during the subduction of crustal material.