Primary compositional range and alteration trends of microlite from the yellowknife pegmatite field,Northwest territories,Canada

Summary Microlite occurs as a rare accessory mineral in beryl-columbite, beryl-columbitephosphate, complex spodumene, albite-spodumene and amblygonite type rare-element granitic pegmatites in the Archean Yellowknife pegmatite field of the Canadian Shield. The chemistry of microlite is variable but consistent with the accepted structural formula A_2–mB₂X₆Y_1–n pH₂O, where generally A = Ca,Na; B = Ta,Nb; X = O; Y = O,OH, F; m = 0 - 2; n = 0 - 1 and p = 0 - l. The chemistry of the Yellowknife microlite is dominated by Ca, Na, Ta, and Nb with minor amounts of U, Pb, Fe, Mn, and Ti. The compositions of microlite are interpreted to reflect primary variability and effects of late-stage alteration.Two principal types of microlite can be distinguished by their primary composition and alteration trends. U-poor microlite originated by the metasomatic replacement of pre-existing manganocolumbite, manganotantalite, and ferrotapiolite; with progressive alteration, its composition evolves from early Ca-rich, Fe,Mn-poor members to late Ca,Na-poor, Fe,Mn-enriched members. In contrast, U-bearing microlite formed from U-enriched, moderately fractionated pegmatitec fluids acting upon ferrocolumbite, manganocolumbite, and manganotantalite; with progressive alteration, its composition evolves from U,Ca,Na-enriched members to U,Ca,Na-poor, Fe,Mn-enriched members.

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Primärer zusammensetzungsbereich und umwandlungstrends der mikrolithe aus dem yellowknife pegmatitfeld, Northwest Territories, Kanada

Zusammenfassung Primärer Zusammensetzungsbereich und Umwandlungstrends der Mikrolithe aus dem Yellowknife Pegmatitfeld, Northwest Territories, Kanada Mikrolith kommt in den Beryll-Columbit-, Beryll-Columbit-Phosphat-, komplexen Spodumeri-, Albit-Spodumen- und Amblygonit-Typen der Seltene-Element-Granitpegmatite im archäischen Yellowknife Pegmatitfeld des Kanadischen Schildes als seltenes akzessorisches Mineral vor. Der Chemismus des Mikroliths variiert, ist aber mit der gebräuchlichen Strukturformel A_2–mB₂X_1–mY_1–n·pH₂O verträglich, mit im allgemeinen A = Ca,Na, B = Ta,Nb, X = O, m=0–2, n =O–1 und p=0–1. Der Chemismus des Yellowknife Mikroliths wird durch Ca, Na, Ta und Nb dominiert, U, Pb, Fe, Mn und Ti treten in kleineren Mengen auf. Die Zusammensetzungen des Mikroliths spiegeln die primäre Variabilität sowie die Auswirkungen späterer Umwand lungen wieder.Zwei Haupttypen des Mikroliths können nach ihrer primären Zusammensetzung und den Umwandlungstrends unterschieden werden. U-armer Mikrolith entstand durch metasomatischen Ersatz von früherem Manganocolumbit-Manganotantalit und Ferrotapiolith, mit fortschreitender Umwandlung entwickelt sich seine Zusammensetzung von frühen Ca-reichen, Fe,Mn-armen Gliedern zu späten Ca,Na-armen, Fe,Mn-angereicherten Gliedern. Im Gegensatz dazu bildete sich U-haltiger Mikrolith aus an U angerereicherten, mäßig fraktionierten pegmatitischen Fluiden, die auf Manganocolumbit-Manganotantalit einwirkten, mit fortschreitender Umwandlung entwickelt sich seine Zusammensetzung von U,Ca,Na-angereicherten Gliedern zu U,Ca,Na-armen, Mn,Feangereicherten Gliedern.

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With 9 Figures     

Chemistry and mineralogy of podiform chromitite deposits,southern NSW,Australia: a guide to their origin and evolution

Summary Many small podiform chromitite deposits occur within two alpine-type serpentinite belts (of uncertain age) in southern NSW. Most of these deposits are enclosed in massive serpentinised chromite-rich dunite which cross-cuts primary layering within the main harzburgite body. In the western belt, the chromitites are all Cr-rich, whereas in the eastern belt there is a spectrum from Cr-rich to highly Al-rich chromitites, all of which have a fairly Complex geographic distribution. All of the chromitites are ophiolitic in character and the chemistry of both the chromitites and discrete chromite grains is reasonably Constant within a deposit, but varies widely between deposits. The REE concentrations are very low and lack any systematic geographic distribution. Most of the hromitites have an opholitic PGE signature, although some exceptions do occur and this is ascribed to localised remobilisation during serpentinisation. PIXE proton probe results show that the chromite grains are enriched, relative to the. serpentine fracture-fill, in Mn, Ni, Zn and Ga and depleted in As and Cu. Inclusions Completely enclosed within the chromite grains include Al-rich chromite, PGE-bearing nickel sulphides, palladian gold, forsteritic olivine, pargasitic amphiboles and a member of the gedrite/anthophyllite group. PGE-bearing fracture-fill phases include millerite, heazlewoodite, polydymite, chalcopyrite, trevorite, native gold, ruthenium, palladium and Ni₃Pt(?). Other fracture-fill phases include awaruite, magnetite, pentlandite, lizardite 6T, chrysotile 2M, antigorite, talc, clinochlore IIb, uvarovite garnet, diopside and ferritchromit. The chromitites were derived from a different magma than the peridotite and the present distribution of low Al, intermediate Al and high Al Chromitites reflects the spatial distribution of a progressively fractionating parental magma rather than different magmatic sources. Both the trace element and REE Chemistries of the chromitites yield little insight into the genesis of the chromitite pods and their distribution Could reflect either an inhomogeneous distribution in the parental magma or localised remobilisation during serpentinisation. During serpentinisation, PGE within the chromities and hostrock dunites and harzburgites were released, and precipitated within the crack seal breccia environment of the chromitites. Provided that the inclusions enclosed within the chromite grains formed in the presence of the same fluid as the chromite, this magmatic chromite and olivine forming liquid must have had a minor concentrated volatile-rich component. Subsequent serpentinisation of the chromitites was responsbile for the localised remobilisation of metals, PGE, S and the REE.

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Chemismus und Mineralogie von podiformen Chromitlagerstätten, Süd-NSW, Australien: Ein Schlüssel zu ihrer Entstehung und Entwicklung

Zusammenfassung Zahlreiche kleinere podiforme Chromitlagerstätten treten in zwei alpinotypen Serpinitingürteln unsicherer Altersstellung im südlichen NSW auf. Die meisten dieser Lagerstätten sind an serpentinisierte chromitreiche Dunite, die den primären Lagenbau der Harzburgitkörper durchsetzen, gebunden. Im westlichen Gürtel sind die Chromite Cr-reich, im östlichen reicht das Spektrum von Cr- bis Al-reichen Chromititen mit komplexer geographischer Verbreitung. Alle Chromitite zeigen ophiolitischen Charakter und die Zusammensetzung der Chromitite aber auch einzelner Chromitkörner ist relativ konstant innerhalb einer Lagerstätte. Sie variiert allerdings von Lagerstätte zu Lagerstätte. Die SEE Gehalte sind sehr niedrig. Eine systematische geographische Verteilung ist nicht erkennbar. Die meisten Chromitite zeigen ophiolitische PGE Verteilungsmuster, obwohl es auch Ausnahmen, die lokaler Remobilisation im Zuge der Serpentinisierung zugeschrieben werden müssen, beobachtbar sind. Ergebnisse von PIXE Protonensondenanalysen zeigen, daß die Chromitkörner im Vegleich zu den Serpentinitrißfüllungen an Mn, Ni, Zn und Ga angereichert und an As und Cu angereichert sind. Al-reiche Chromite, PGE-führende Nickelsulfide, Gold mit Palladium, Forsterit und pargasitische Amphibole, sowie Gedrit/Antophyllit sind als Einschlüsse in Chromit nachgewiesen. In PGE-führenden Rissen kommen Millerit, Heazlewoodit, Polydymit, Kupferkies, Trevorit, gedigenes Gold, Ruthenium, Palladium und Ni₃Pt(?) vor. Andere Phasen in diesen Rißfüllungen sind Awaruit, Magnetit, Pentlandit, Lizardit 6T, Chrysotil 2M, Antigorit, Talk, Klinochlor IIb, Uvarovit, Diopsid und Ferritchromit.Die Chromitite sind von einem anderen Magma als die Peridotite abzuleiten und die nunmehrige Verteilung von Al-armen bis Al-reichen Chromititen spiegelt die räumliche Verteilung eines fraktionierenden Ausgangsmagmas eher wider als unterschiedliche Magmenquellen. Spuren- und REE-Geochemie erlauben kaum Einblicke in die Genese der Chromititkörper. Ihre unregelmäßige Verteilung könnte entweder auf Inhomogenitäten des Ausgangsmagmas oder auf lokale Remobilisation im Zuge der Serpentinisierung zurückzuführen sein. Während der Serpentinisierung wurden PGEs in den Chromititen und dunitischen und harzburgitischen Nebengesteinen freigesetzt und in den ehromititischen crack-seal Brekzien wiederausgefällt. Unter der Annahme, daß sich die Einschlüsse in den Chromitkörnen in Gegenwart desselben Fluids wie die Chromite selbst gebildet haben, müssen die magmatischen Chromit- und olivinführenden Schmelzen mit einer volatilreichen Komponente koexistiert haben. Nachträgliche Serpentinisierung der Chromitite war für die lokale Remobilisation der Metalle, der PGEs, S und der REE verantwortlich.

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Trace element chemistry of lithium-rich micas from rare-element granitic pegmatites

Summary Granitic pegmatites characterized by advanced accumulation and fractionation of incompatible rare lithophile elements (Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Ta Nb, B, P and F), often contain mineral assemblages which host lithium-rich micas. Lepidolite and lithian muscovite occur in high-pressure spodumene, low-pressure petalite, phosphorus-enriched amblygonite and fluorine-rich lepidolite subtypes of orogenic affiliated complex type granitic pegmatites and rarely in anorogenic affiliated amazonite-bearingTrace element data determined by X-ray fluorescence for lepidolite of various pegmatite subtypes, morphology (book, scaly, fine-grained), position within the pegmatite (primary zones, replacement units, pockets), mineral assemblages and tectonic affinity (orogenic vs anorogenic) show extreme fractionation of Rb and Cs; modest levels of T1, Ga, Nb, Ta, Sn and Zn; and typically low abundances of Ba, Sr, Ni, Pb, Y, V, W and Zr. Extreme fractionation is indicated by low values of K/Rb, K/Cs and Nb/Ta which are lowest in lepidolite from petalite subtype pegmatites.No systematic differences in trace element content is evident among the different lepidolite morphologies or paragenetic position. Lepidolite from spodumene subtype pegmatites are generally slightly less fractionated than those from petalite or lepidolite subtype pegmatites.

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Spurenelement-Chemie von Lithium-reichen Glimmern aus granitischen Pegmatiten

Zusammenfassung Granitische Pegmatite, die durch fortgeschrittene Anreicherung und Fraktionierung von inkompatiblen, seltenen, lithophilen Elementen (Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Ta Nb, B, P und F) charakterisiert sind, enthalten häufig Mineralparagenesen mit Lithium-reichen Glimmern. Lepidolith und Li-Muskowit treten in Hochdruck-Spodumen, in Niedrigdruck-Petalit, in mit Phosphor angereichertem Amblygonit und in Fluor-reichen Lepidolith-Unterarten aus komplexen orogenen granitischen Pegmatiten und selten auch aus anorogenen, Amazonit-führenden Pegmatiten, auf.Spurenelement-Daten aus der Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse von Lepidolith aus verschiedenen Pegmatit-Untertypen, die Morphologie (tafelig, schuppig, feinkörnig), die Position innerhalb des Pegmatits (primäre Zonen, verdrängte Einheiten, Taschen), Mineralbestände und tektonische Affinität (orogen gegen anorogen) zeigen eine extreme Fraktionierung von Rb und Cs, bescheidene Gehalte an TI, Ga, Nb, Ta, Sn und Zn; und typischerweise geringe Häufigkeiten von Ba, Sr, Ni, Pb, Y, V, W und Zr. Die extreme Fraktionierung wird durch niedrige Werte von K/Rb, K/Cs und Nb/Ta angezeigt, die in Lepidolith von Pegmatiten des Petalit-Subtyps am niedrigsten sind.Aus den verschiedenen Morphologien oder paragenetischen Positionen von Lepidolith sind keine systematischen Unterschiede im Spurenelementgehalt ersichtlich. Lepidolith aus Pegmatiten des Spodumen-Subtyps sind generell etwas weniger fraktioniert als jene von Pegmatiten des Petalit- oder Lepidolith-Subtyps.

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Evaluating the Effects of Autofluorescence during Raman Hyperspectral Imaging

Raman hyperspectral imaging is becoming a popular technique to analyse geological materials. Autofluorescence can affect the quality of the spectra that comprise hyperspectral data sets. Few studies have addressed potential misinterpretation of Raman images from hyperspectral data sets affected by autofluorescence. Additionally, little work has been done to develop methods for identifying the spatial distribution of spectra affected by autofluorescence. This study illustrates how autofluorescence may lead to misinterpretation of the distribution of materials based on intensity at a point images. A method is proposed utilising signal to axis analysis to create images that identify regions affected by autofluorescence. Post‐processing baseline correction is often used to address autofluorescence, and most software programs utilise a form of partial least squares regression modelling based on a subjective choice of polynomial order. This study shows that an inappropriate choice of polynomial order can introduce error, which may lead to misinterpretation of Raman images. A signal to axis analysis method is proposed to statistically compare seemingly ‘appropriate’ baseline correction trials. Although post‐processing of hyperspectral data sets and creating Raman images seem simple, data quality issues such as autofluorescence must be considered. If baseline correction is deemed necessary, it should be addressed as an experiment involving statistical comparison.     

Implications of uncertain future fossil energy resources on bioenergy use and terrestrial carbon emissions

The magnitude and character of the global resource base of fossil fuels is a key determinant of the evolution of the future global energy system and corresponding fossil fuel carbon emissions. What is less well understood is the potential magnitude of impact of the availability of fossil fuels, due to the interaction with biomass energy, on agriculture, land use, ecosystems and therefore carbon emissions from land-use change. This paper explores these links and implications. We show that if oil resources are limited, then the consequently higher price for liquids induces both the use of coal-to-liquids technology deployment, but also enhanced production of bioenergy crops particularly in a business-as-usual scenario. This in turn implies greater pressure to convert unmanaged ecosystems to produce bioenergy, and higher rates of terrestrial carbon emissions from land use.     

Adjustment of Wind Waves to Sudden Changes of Wind Speed

An experiment was conducted in a small wind-wave facility at the Ocean Engineering Laboratory, California, to address the following question: when the wind speed changes rapidly, how quickly and in what manner do the short wind waves respond? To answer this question we have produced a very rapid change in wind speed between U _low (4.6 m s^?1) and U _high (7.1 m s^?1). Water surface elevation and air turbulence were monitored up to a fetch of 5.5 m. The cycle of increasing and decreasing wind speed was repeated 20 times to assure statistical accuracy in the measurement by taking an ensemble mean. In this way, we were able to study in detail the processes by which the young laboratory wind waves adjust to wind speed perturbations. We found that the wind-wave response occurs over two time scales determined by local equilibrium adjustment and fetch adjustment, Δt ₁/T = O(10) and Δt ₂/T = O(100), respectively, in the current tank. The steady state is characterized by a constant non-dimensional wave height (H/gT ² or equivalently, the wave steepness for linear gravity waves) depending on wind speed. This equilibrium state was found in our non-steady experiments to apply at all fetches, even during the long transition to steady state, but only after a short initial relaxation Δt ₁/T of O(10) following a sudden change in wind speed. The complete transition to the new steady state takes much longer, Δt ₂/T of O(100) at the largest fetch, during which time energy propagates over the entire fetch along the rays (dx/dt = c _g) and grows under the influence of wind pumping. At the same time, frequency downshifts. Although the current study is limited in scale variations, we believe that the suggestion that the two adjustment time scales are related to local equilibrium adjustment and fetch adjustment is also applicable to the ocean.