The nocturnal low-level jet (LLJ) and orographic (gravity) waves play an important role in the generation of turbulence and pollutant dispersion and can affect the energy production by wind turbines. Additionally, gravity waves have an influence on the local mixing and turbulence within the surface layer and the vertical flux of mass into the lower atmosphere. On 25 September 2017, during a field campaign, a persistent easterly LLJ and gravity waves were observed simultaneously in a coastal area in the north of France. We explore the variability of the wind speed, turbulent eddies, and turbulence kinetic energy in the time–frequency and space domain using an ultrasonic anemometer and a scanning wind lidar. The results reveal a significant enhancement of the turbulence-kinetic-energy dissipation (by?50%) due to gravity waves in the LLJ shear layer (below the jet core) during the period of wave propagation. Large magnitudes of zonal and vertical components of the shear stress (approximately 0.4 and 1.5 m2 s?2, respectively) are found during that period. Large eddies (scales of 110 to 280 m) matching the high-wind-speed regime are found to propagate the momentum downwards, which enhances the mass transport from the LLJ shear layer to the roughness layer. Furthermore, these large-scale eddies are associated with the crests while comparatively small-scale eddies are associated with the troughs of the gravity wave.
The past decade has seen the advent of various radio astronomy arrays, particularly for low-frequency observations below 100 MHz. These developments have been primarily driven by interesting and fundamental scientific questions, such as studying the dark ages and epoch of re-ionization, by detecting the highly red-shifted 21 cm line emission. However, Earth-based radio astronomy observations at frequencies below 30 MHz are severely restricted due to man-made interference, ionospheric distortion and almost complete non-transparency of the ionosphere below 10 MHz. Therefore, this narrow spectral band remains possibly the last unexplored frequency range in radio astronomy. A straightforward solution to study the universe at these frequencies is to deploy a space-based antenna array far away from Earths’ ionosphere. In the past, such space-based radio astronomy studies were principally limited by technology and computing resources, however current processing and communication trends indicate otherwise. Furthermore, successful space-based missions which mapped the sky in this frequency regime, such as the lunar orbiter RAE-2, were restricted by very poor spatial resolution. Recently concluded studies, such as DARIS (Disturbuted Aperture Array for Radio Astronomy In Space) have shown the ready feasibility of a 9 satellite constellation using off the shelf components. The aim of this article is to discuss the current trends and technologies towards the feasibility of a space-based aperture array for astronomical observations in the Ultra-Long Wavelength (ULW) regime of greater than 10 m i.e., below 30 MHz. We briefly present the achievable science cases, and discuss the system design for selected scenarios such as extra-galactic surveys. An extensive discussion is presented on various sub-systems of the potential satellite array, such as radio astronomical antenna design, the on-board signal processing, communication architectures and joint space-time estimation of the satellite network. In light of a scalable array and to avert single point of failure, we propose both centralized and distributed solutions for the ULW space-based array. We highlight the benefits of various deployment locations and summarize the technological challenges for future space-based radio arrays. 相似文献
Managers are moving from a model of managing individual sectors, human activities, or ecosystem services to an ecosystem-based management (EBM) approach which attempts to balance the range of services provided by ecosystems. Applying EBM is often difficult due to inherent tradeoffs in managing for different services. This challenge particularly holds for estuarine systems, which have been heavily altered in most regions and are often subject to intense management interventions. Estuarine managers can often choose among a range of management tactics to enhance a particular service; although some management actions will result in strong tradeoffs, others may enhance multiple services simultaneously. Management of estuarine ecosystems could be improved by distinguishing between optimal management actions for enhancing multiple services and those that have severe tradeoffs. This requires a framework that evaluates tradeoff scenarios and identifies management actions likely to benefit multiple services. We created a management action-services matrix as a first step towards assessing tradeoffs and providing managers with a decision support tool. We found that management actions that restored or enhanced natural vegetation (e.g., salt marsh and mangroves) and some shellfish (particularly oysters and oyster reef habitat) benefited multiple services. In contrast, management actions such as desalination, salt pond creation, sand mining, and large container shipping had large net negative effects on several of the other services considered in the matrix. Our framework provides resource managers a simple way to inform EBM decisions and can also be used as a first step in more sophisticated approaches that model service delivery. 相似文献
This paper provides an overview of the PACS photometer flux calibration concept, in particular for the principal observation mode, the scan map. The absolute flux calibration is tied to the photospheric models of five fiducial stellar standards (α Boo, α Cet, α Tau, β And, γ Dra). The data processing steps to arrive at a consistent and homogeneous calibration are outlined. In the current state the relative photometric accuracy is ~2 % in all bands. Starting from the present calibration status, the characterization and correction for instrumental effects affecting the relative calibration accuracy is described and an outlook for the final achievable calibration numbers is given. After including all the correction for the instrumental effects, the relative photometric calibration accuracy (repeatability) will be as good as 0.5 % in the blue and green band and 2 % in the red band. This excellent calibration starts to reveal possible inconsistencies between the models of the K-type and the M-type stellar calibrators. The absolute calibration accuracy is therefore mainly limited by the 5 % uncertainty of the celestial standard models in all three bands. The PACS bolometer response was extremely stable over the entire Herschel mission and a single, time-independent response calibration file is sufficient for the processing and calibration of the science observations. The dedicated measurements of the internal calibration sources were needed only to characterize secondary effects. No aging effects of the bolometer or the filters have been found. Also, we found no signs of filter leaks. The PACS photometric system is very well characterized with a constant energy spectrum νFν = λFλ = const as a reference. Colour corrections for a wide range of sources SEDs are determined and tabulated. 相似文献
Glaciers erode bedrock but are also efficient conveyors of debris supplied during a cycle of glaciation by processes other than basal erosion. In this dual capacity as both an eroding and a transporting agent lies the ambiguity of ‘glacial erosion’ as a geomorphic process, with implications for methods of measuring the removal of rock mass by glaciers in the geological past, and for interpreting what exactly the consequences have been on topography and elevation change. A global review of ~400 Quaternary glacial denudation rates estimated from five different measurement techniques provides values ranging between 10?4 and 10 mm yr?1. We investigate the causes of such wide variability by examining the respective influences of environmental setting and methodological bias. A reference frame chosen for assessing these issues is the Massif du Carlit (Pyrenees, France), where a quantified mass balance of the well preserved glacial, periglacial and paraglacial deposits was made possible by detailed geomorphological mapping and terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide dating of extant erosional and depositional landform sequences. Resulting age brackets helped to define three main episodes of ice-cap growth and decline, each characterized by a volume of debris and a mappable source area. Erosion rates were expressed in two ways: (i) as spatially averaged denudation rates (D) during the successive stages of glacial advance to the line of maximum ice extent (MIE), post-MIE ice recession, and Lateglacial cirque readvance, respectively; and (ii) as cirque-wall recession rates (R) where moraine facies criteria indicated a supraglacial provenance of debris. Results indicate low erosion (D ≈ 0.05 mm yr?1) during the ice advance phase, probably because of thin or passive ice covering the low-gradient subglacial topography that occurs just above the late Pleistocene equilibrium line altitude (2.2–2.4 km). Erosion rates peaked (D ≈ 0.6 mm yr?1 and R ≈ 2.4–4.5 mm yr?1) during the main transition to ice-free conditions, when deglacial debuttressing promoted the rapid response of freshly exposed slope systems to new equilibrium conditions in the steep crest zone. Lateglacial D- and R-values declined to 0.2–0.3 mm yr?1, with indications of spatially variable R controlled by lithology. In this environment glaciers overall behaved more as conveyors of debris supplied by supraglacial rock exposures in the mountain crest zone than as powerful modifiers of subglacial topography. This explains the widespread preservation of deep, in situ preglacial weathering profiles on relict Cenozoic land surfaces in the deglacierized part of the Eastern Pyrenees. When plotted on the global data set analyzed and discussed in the review, the East Pyrenean erosion rates stand out as being amongst the lowest on record. 相似文献