The evolution and the secondary maximum of the green line intensity

A new relation has been given in order to calculate the intensity of the green line of the solar corona at 5303 Å as a function of the number of proton events N _P and the R (R) index of solar activity. This relation is available for the 19th and 20th solar cycles. Moreover there is given a theoretical justification of this relationship taking into account as a new parameter the evolution of the coronal magnetic field during the solar cycle.     

The political economy of urbanization in Melanesia

The authors attempt to provide a comprehensive review of urbanization in three Melanesian countries (Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu) and in Fiji. The focus of the paper is on the development and perpetuation of various forms of inequality exemplified by Melanesian urbanization and its colonial origins.     

Drop size dependent sulfate distribution in a growing cloud

A simple entraining air parcel model including cloud microphysical and chemical processes is used to calculate the distribution of sulfate over the drop sizes under continental background conditions. Under these conditions the aerosol sulfate is predicted to contribute the largest amount of aqueous sulfate in cloud drops. The sulfate produced by oxidation is found to contribute significantly in drops larger than 10 m radius.     

A comparative study of the performance of various vertical discretization schemes

Summary Most finite-difference numerical weather prediction models employ vertical discretizations that are staggered, and are low-order (usually second-order) approximations for the important terms such as the derivation of the geopotential from the hydrostatic equation, and the calculation of the vertically integrated divergence. In a sigma-coordinate model the latter is used for computing both the surface pressure change and the vertical velocity. All of the above-mentioned variables can diminish the accuracy of the forecast if they are not calculated accurately, and can have an impact on related quantities such as precipitation.In this study various discretization schemes in the vertical are compared both in theory and in practice. Four different vertical grids are tested: one unstaggered and three staggered (including the widely-used Lorenz grid). The comparison is carried out by assessing the accuracy of the grids using vertical numerics that range from second-order up to sixth-order.The theoretical part of the study examines how faithfully each vertical grid reproduces the vertical modes of the governing equations linearized with a basic state atmosphere. The performance of the grids is evaluated for 2nd, 4th and 6th-order numerical schemes based on Lagrange polynomials, and for a 6th-ordercompact scheme.Our interpretation of the results of the theoretical study is as follows. The most important result is that the order of accuracy employed in the numerics seems to be more significant than the choice of vertical grid. There are differences between the grids at second-order, but these differences effectively vanish as the order of accuracy increases. The sixth-order schemes all produce very accurate results with the grids performing equally well, and with the compact scheme significantly outperforming the Lagrange scheme. A second major result is that for the number of levels typically used in current operational forecast models, second-order schemes (which are used almost universally) all appear to be relatively poor, for other than the lowest modes.The theoretical claims were confirmed in practice using a large number (100) of forecasts with the Australian Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre's operational model. By comparing test model forecasts using the four grids and the different orders of numerics with very high resolution control model forecasts, the results of the theoretical study seem to be corroborated.With 8 Figures     

Measurements of peroxyacetylnitrate in the marine boundary layer over the Atlantic

The atmospheric concentration of peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) was measured during a cruise of the R.S. Polarstern from Bremerhaven (Germany) to Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) in September/ October 1988. The measurements were made in-situ by a combination of electron capture gaschromatography with a cryogenic preconcentration step. The theoretical lower limit of detection (3) was 0.4 ppt. The mixing ratios of PAN varied by more than three orders of magnitude from 2000 ppt in the English Channel to less than 0.4 ppt south of the Azores (38° N). South of 35° N, PAN levels were below the detection limit, except at 30–31° S off the eastern coast of South America. Here, PAN mixing ratios of 10 to 100 ppt were detected in continentally influenced air masses. Detectable levels of PAN were mostly observed in air masses of continental or high northern origin. Changes in the wind directions were usually associated with substantial changes in the PAN mixing ratios.     

Latitudinal variation of measured O3 photolysis frequencies J(O1D) and primary OH production rates over the Atlantic Ocean between 50° N and 30° S

The latitudinal variation of the photolysis frequency of ozone to O(¹D) atoms, J(O¹D), was measured using a filter radiometer during the cruise ANT VII/1 of the research vessel Polarstern in September/October 1988. The J(O¹D) noon values exhibited a maximum of 3.6×10^-5 s^-1 (2 sr) at the equator and decreased strongly towards higher latitudes. J(O¹D) reached highest values for clean marine background air with low aerosol load and almost cloudless sky. The J(O¹D) data, measured under these conditions and a temperature of 295 K, can be expressed by: % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamOsaiaacI% cacaqGpbWaaWbaaSqabeaaiiaacqWF8baFaaGccaqGebGaaeykaiaa% bccacqWF9aqpcaqGGaGaaeyzaiaabIhacaqGWbGaaeiiaiaabUhacq% GHsislcaaI4aGaaiOlaiaaicdacaaIYaGaeyOeI0IaaGioaiaac6ca% caaI4aGaaiiEaiaaigdacaaIWaWaaWbaaSqabeaacqGHsislcaaIZa% aaaOGaaeiiaiaabIhacaqGGaGaam4uaiabgUcaRiaaiodacaGGUaGa% aGinaiaacIhacaaIXaGaaGimamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGOnaa% aakiaadofadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaikdaaaGccaGG9bGaaeikaiaaboha% daahaaWcbeqaaiabgkHiTiaaigdaaaGccaGGPaaaaa!5EE9!\[J({\text{O}}^| {\text{D) }} = {\text{ exp \{ }} - 8.02 - 8.8x10^{ - 3} {\text{ x }}S + 3.4x10^{ - 6} S^2 \} {\text{(s}}^{ - 1} )\] where S represents the product of the overhead ozone column (DU) and the secant of the solar zenith angle. The meridional profile of the primary OH radical production rate P(OH) was calculated from the J(O¹D) measurements and simultaneously recorded O₃ and H₂O mixing ratios. While the latitudinal distribution of J(O¹D) and water vapour was nearly symmetric to the equator, high tropospheric ozone levels up to 40 ppb were observed in the Southern Hemisphere, SH, resulting in higher P(OH) in the SH.     

A model for inferring canopy and underlying soil temperatures from multi-directional measurements

Thermal emission is modeled from a canopy/soil surface, where the soil and the leaves are at different temperatures,T _g andT _c respectively. The temperatureT _m corresponding to a radiometer reading is given by $$B_\lambda (T_m ) = \chi B_\lambda (T_g ) + (1 - \chi )B_\lambda (T_c ) ,$$ whereB _λ denotes the Planck blackbody function at wavelength λ, χ specifies the fraction of the field of view occupied by the soil at a given view direction, and an emissivity of 1.0 is assumed for the plants and the soil. The dependence of the soil-fraction χ on the view direction and the structure is expressed by the viewing-geometry parameter, which allows for concise and simple formulation. We observe from our model that at large view zenith angles, only the plants are effectively seen (that is, χ tends to zero), and thereforeT _c can be determined from observations at large zenith angles, to the extent that such observations are practical. Viewing from the zenith, χ = exp(-L _hc), whereL _hc is the projection of the canopy leaf-area (per unit surface area) on a horizontal plane. For off-zenith observations, the soil-fraction χ depends on the distribution in the azimuth of the projected areas of various leaf categories, in addition to the dependence on the sum total of these projections,L _hc.L _hc, rather than the leaf-area index, emerges as the parameter characterizing the optical thickness of the canopy. Inferring bothT _c andT _g from observations from the zenith and from large zenith angles is possible ifL _hc is known from other measurements. Drooping of leaves under water-stress conditions affects the observed temperatureT _m in a complicated way because a leaf-inclination change produces a change inL _hc (for the same leaf area) and also a change in the dependence of χ on the view direction. Water stress can produce an increase of the soil-fraction χ and thus tends to produce an exaggerated increase in the observed temperature compared to the actual increase in canopy temperature. These effects are analyzed for a simulated soybean canopy.     

Diploptene: an indicator of terrigenous organic carbon in Washington coastal sediments

The pentacyclic triterpene 17 beta(H),21 beta(H)-hop-22(29)-ene (diploptene) occurs in sediments throughout the Columbia River drainage basin and off the southern coast of Washington state in concentrations comparable to long-chain plantwax n-alkanes. The same relationship is evident for diploptene and long-chain n-alkanes in soils from the Willamette Valley. Microorganisms indigenous to soils and soil erosion are indicated as the biological source and physical process, respectively, for diploptene in coastal sediments. Similarity between the stable carbon isotopic composition (delta 13CPDB) of diploptene isolated from soil in the Willamette Valley (-31.2 +/- 0.3%) and from sediments deposited throughout the Washington coastal environment (-31.2 +/- 0.5%) supports this argument. Values of delta for diploptene in river sediments are variable and 8-17% lighter, indicating that an additional biological source such as methane-oxidizing bacteria makes a significant contribution to the diploptene record in river sediments. Selective biodegradation resulting from a difference in the physicochemical association within eroded particles can explain the absence of the more-13C-depleted form of diploptene in Washington coastal sediments, but this mechanism remains unproven.     

TheoreticalPKIKP magnitude determination

Summary The estimation of the theoretical magnitude for deep foci based on the vertica component of medium-period PKIKP waves, Earth model PREM and source spectra is presented. The given graphs are valid for period T ranging from 1·6 s to 10 s, source depth of 25 km to 600 km and distance range of 16 500 km to 19 800 km. A simplified method of representing calibration curves is used.     

Linear hydromagnetic stability of a differentially rotating non-uniformly stratified fluid layer

Summary Our discussion is concerned with the common effect of the non-uniformity of layer rotation and stratification. We have assumed a model of differential rotation with the upper part of the layer rotating more slowly, the bottom part more quickly. The upper part of the layer is stratified stably, the bottom part unstably.The thermal instabilities are preferred in the strong differential rotation case and they are the most easily excited by a strong magnetic field (10²–10³). The direction of its propagation is westward in the uniformly stratified layer and eastward in the non-uniformly stratified layer.