The Chimborazo sector collapse and debris avalanche: Deposit characteristics as evidence of emplacement mechanisms

Chimborazo is a Late Pleistocene to Holocene stratovolcano located at the southwest end of the main Ecuadorian volcanic arc. It experienced a large sector collapse and debris avalanche (DA) of the initial edifice (CH-I). This left a 4 km wide scar, removing 8.0 ± 0.5 km³ of the edifice. The debris avalanche deposit (DAD) is abundantly exposed throughout the Riobamba Basin to the Río Chambo, more than 35 km southeast of the volcano. The DAD averages a thickness of 40 m, covers about 280 km², and has a volume of > 11 km³. Two main DAD facies are recognized: block and mixed facies. The block facies is derived predominantly from edifice lava and forms > 80 vol.% of the DAD, with a probable volume increase of 15–25 vol.%. The mixed facies was essentially created by mixing brecciated edifice rock with substratum and is found mainly in distal and marginal areas. The DAD has clear surface ridges and hummocks, and internal structures such as jigsaw cracks, injections, and shear-zone features are widespread. Structures such as stretched blocks along the base contact indicate high basal shear. Substratum incorporation is directly observed at the base and is inferred from the presence of substratum-derived material in the DAD body. Based on the facies and structural interpretation, we propose an emplacement model of a lava-rich avalanche strongly cataclased before and/or during failure initiation. The flow mobilises and incorporates significant substrata (10–14 vol.%) while developing a fine lubricating basal layer. The substrata-dominated mixed facies is transported to the DAD interior and top in dykes invading previously-formed fractures.     

Tidal-induced inorganic carbon dynamics in the Strait of Gibraltar

This study presents the distribution of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) along the Strait of Gibraltar, its tidal-induced variability, as well as the inorganic carbon exchange between the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. During November 2003, water column samples were collected at nine stations to measure total alkalinity (TA), pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) for the spatial characterization of the carbonate system. At the same time, anchored samplings were carried out, above the Camarinal Sill and in the Eastern Section of the Strait, in order to assess the tidal mixing effects for oxygen and DIC distribution on the water column. Three distinct water masses can be discerned in this area: the Surface Atlantic Water (SAW), the Mediterranean Water (MW), and the less abundant North Atlantic Central Water (NACW). The observations show an increase in the DIC and a decrease in oxygen concentration with depth, related to the different physico-chemical features of each water mass. The results show the high time-dependence of the vertical distribution of DIC with the interface oscillation, affected by the intense mixing processes taking place in the Strait. Intense mixing episodes over the Camarinal Sill are responsible for an increase in the DIC concentrations in the upper layer of the Eastern Section of the Strait. Higher DIC concentrations in the Mediterranean than in the Atlantic waters are responsible for a net DIC transport of 1.47×10¹² mol C yr⁻¹ to the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, the net exchange is highly sensitive to the interface definition, as well as to the estimate of water volume transport used.     

Seven decades of hydrogeomorphological changes in a near-natural (Sense River) and a hydropower-regulated (Sarine River) pre-Alpine river floodplain in Western Switzerland

Hydropower alteration of the natural flow and sediment regime can severely degrade hydromorphology, thereby threatening biodiversity and overall ecosystem processes of rivers and their floodplains. Using sequences of aerial images, we quantified seven decades (1938/1942–2013) of spatiotemporal changes in channel and floodplain morphology, as well as changes in the physical habitats, of three floodplain river reaches of the Swiss pre-Alps, two hydropower-regulated and one near-natural. In the Sarine River floodplain, within the first decades of hydropower impairment, the magnitude and frequency of flood events (Q₂, Q₁₀, Q₃₀) decreased substantially. As a result, the area of pioneer floodplain habitats that depend on flood activity and sediment dynamic, such as bare sediments, decreased dramatically by approximately 95%. However, by 2013 vegetated areas had generally increased in comparison to the pre-regulation period in 1943, indicating general vegetative colonization. Between 1943 and 2013, the active channel underwent essential narrowing (up to 62% width reduction in the residual flow reach) and habitat turnover rates were very low (5% of the total floodplain area changed habitat type five to six times). In contrast, from the 1950s onwards, the near-natural floodplain of the Sense River experienced recurrent narrowing and widening, and frequent changes between bare and vegetated areas, reflecting the shifting habitat mosaic concept typical for natural floodplains. In the three reaches investigated, we found that the active floodplain width and erosion of vegetated areas were primarily controlled by medium to large floods (Q₁₀, Q₃₀), which combined with reduced time intervals between ordinary floods ≥ Q₂ most likely mobilized streambed sediments and limited the ability of vegetation to establish itself on bare gravel bars within the parafluvial zone. These findings can contribute to restoration action plans such as controlled flooding and sediment replenishments in the Sarine and other floodplain rivers of the Alps. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Multi‐temporal transport network models for accessibility studies

Vehicle tracking is a spatio‐temporal source of high‐granularity travel time information that can be used for transportation planning. However, it is still a challenge to combine data from heterogeneous sources into a dynamic transport network, while allowing for network modifications over time. This article uses conceptual modeling to develop multi‐temporal transport networks in geographic information systems (GIS) for accessibility studies. The proposed multi‐temporal network enables accessibility studies with different temporal granularities and from any location inside the city, resulting in a flexible tool for transport and urban planning. The implemented network is tested in two case studies that focus on socially excluded people in a large global city, São Paulo, Brazil, including accessibility analyses from slum areas. It explores variations within a day and differences between transport modes across time. Case study results indicate how the accessibility is heterogeneous in low‐income regions.     

MgAl2O4 spinels from Allende and NWA 763 carbonaceous chondrites: Structural refinement,cooling history,and trace element contents

MgAl₂O₄ spinels from Allende and NWA 763 carbonaceous chondrites were studied by X‐ray single crystal diffraction, SEM, electron microprobe, LA‐ICP‐MS, and Raman spectroscopy. Those from Allende are almost pure, but, in one case, we found a strong FeO_tot zonation. Spinels from NWA 763 show Mg‐Fe²⁺ substitutions. Almost pure MgAl₂O₄ spinels from both meteorites underwent slow cooling and reached their intracrystalline closure temperature (T_c) in the range 460–520 °C. The NWA 763 spinel with higher FeO content shows a T_c of about 720 °C. X‐ray single crystal diffraction and Raman spectroscopy suggest a slow cooling and an ordered structure with trivalent cations in M site and divalent in T site. Among the trace elements, Ti and Co are enriched with respect to the terrestrial analogs, while Mn, Ni, and Sn show intermediate values between different terrestrial occurrences. Vanadium cannot be used as a tracer of extraterrestrial origin as for Cr‐spinels, because its content is similar in extraterrestrial and terrestrial spinels. In the zoned crystal from Allende, Co show a strong zonation similar to that of FeO.     

An automatic procedure for co-registration of terrestrial laser scanners and digital cameras

Driven by progress in sensor technology, algorithms and data processing capabilities, close range photogrammetry has found a wide range of new application fields over the past two decades. Particularly, the emergence of terrestrial laser scanner has contributed to the close range photogrammetry “popularization” through many promising new applications. Nevertheless, a central issue in many of these developments is the integration of sensor technology with reliable data processing schemes to generate highly automated photogrammetric measurements systems.This paper presents a flexible approach for the automatic co-registration of terrestrial laser scanners (TLS) and amateur digital cameras (DC) to be used effectively in practice. Particularly, the developed approach deals with two different images: a camera image acquired with a DC and a range image obtained with a TLS. To this end, an open-source tool “USAlign” has been developed for testing the different experiments.     

A generalized approach for long-term modelling of extreme crest-to-trough wave heights

This paper deals with the long-term modelling of high sea waves. The solution is given for the return period of sea storms during which an arbitrary chosen number of waves, with crest-to-trough heights exceeding a fixed threshold, occur. This return period is derived starting from the Equivalent Triangular Storm (ETS) model, which associates a triangle to each actual storm and thus represents a significant wave height time series at a fixed location by means of a sequence of triangular storms. The short-term statistics is then applied to investigate the occurrence of large crest-to-trough wave heights during a given storm. Finally, by combining the statistical distribution of significant wave heights, the ETS model and the short-term wave statistics, the solution is given for the return periods R_N and R_N of a sea storm in which N or at least N waves higher than a fixed threshold occur. The values of R_N are then calculated, starting from data of two buoys moored in the Pacific Ocean and in the Mediterranean Sea.     

Primary production in the Strait of Gibraltar: Carbon fixation rates in relation to hydrodynamic and phytoplankton dynamics

Primary production was studied at nine sites distributed within the Strait of Gibraltar (Southern Spain) and North-Western (NW) Alboran Sea by analyzing photosynthesis-irradiance (P–I) relationships and integrated primary production rates in relation to the different types of Deep Chlorophyll Maxima (DCM) detected in the area. The characteristics of the DCM were examined by several methods, including flow cytometry, quantification of transparent expolymer particles and fluorimetric measurements that were applied in order to assess the photo-physiological state of the phytoplankton assemblages with respect to their species composition and water column structure (hydrology). The photosynthetic parameters (derived from P–I relationships) and integrated primary production (range 6–644 mg m⁻² d⁻¹) responded greatly to the diverse DCM identified and thereby the spatial variability of the primary production observed in the region was found to depend upon the occurrence of the different types of phytoplankton accumulations, which were themselves indicative of the previous history of the water column. The net contribution of the primary production to the air–sea CO₂ exchange process was also evaluated in the area. Results indicated that this region behaved as a net sink for the atmospheric CO₂, with the intensity of the flux being strongly modulated by the wind intensity.     

Resolution-dependent subsonic non-thermal line dispersion revealed by ALMA

We report here Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array(ALMA)N2H+(1-0)images of the Orion Molecular Cloud 2 and 3(OMC-2/3)with high angular resolution(3"or 1200 au)and high spatial dynamic range.Combining a dataset from the ALMA main array,Atacama Compact Array(ACA),Nobeyama 45-m Telescope and Very Large Array(VLA)(providing temperature measurement on matching scales),we find that most of the dense gas in OMC-2/3 is subsonic(σQNT/cs=0.62)with a mean line width(△v)of 0.39 kms-1 full width at half maximum(FWHM).This is markedly different from the majority of previous observations of massive star-forming regions.In contrast,line widths from the Nobeyama Telescope are transonic at 0.69 km s-1(σNT/cs=1.08).We demonstrated that the larger line widths obtained by the single-dish telescope arose from unresolved sub-structures within their respective beams.The dispersions from larger scalesσls(as traced by the Nobeyama Telescope)can be decomposed into three components such thatσls2=σss2+σbm2+σrd2,where small-scaleσss is the line dispersion of each ALMA beam,bulk motionσbm is dispersion between peak velocity of each ALMA beam andσrd is the residual dispersion.Such decomposition,though purely empirical,appears to be robust throughout our data cubes.Apparent supersonic line widths,commonly found in massive molecular clouds,are thus likely due to the effect of poor spatial resolution.The observed non-thermal line dispersion(sometimes referred to as’turbulence’)transits from supersonic to subsonic at~0.05 pc scales in the OMC-2/3 region.Such transition could be commonly found with sufficient spatial(not just angular)resolution,even in regions with massive young clusters,such as the Orion molecular clouds studied here.     

A computational method to help identify and measure metallines in high resolution QSO spectra

A computational code is developed to help identify metal absorption linesin high resolution QSO spectra,especially in the Lyα forest.The input to the codeincludes a list of line central wavelengths,column densities and Doppler widths.Thecode then searches for candidate metal absorption systems and assesses the probability that each system could be real.The framework of the strategy we employ isdescribed in detail and we discuss how to estimate the errors in line profile fitting thatare essential to identifi...