Si diffusion in zircon

Self-diffusion of Si under anhydrous conditions at 1 atm has been measured in natural zircon. The source of diffusant for experiments was a mixture of ZrO₂ and ³⁰Si-enriched SiO₂ in 1:1 molar proportions; experiments were run in crimped Pt capsules in 1-atm furnaces. ³⁰Si profiles were measured with both Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) and nuclear reaction analysis with the resonant nuclear reaction ³⁰Si(p,γ)³¹P. For Si diffusion normal to c over the temperature range 1,350–1,550°C, we obtain an Arrhenius relation D = 5.8 exp(−702 ± 54 kJ mol⁻¹/RT) m² s⁻¹ for the NRA measurements, which agrees within uncertainty with an Arrhenius relation determined from the RBS measurements [62 exp(−738 ± 61 kJ mol⁻¹/RT) m² s⁻¹]. Diffusion of Si parallel to c appears slightly faster, but agrees within experimental uncertainty at most temperatures with diffusivities for Si normal to c. Diffusion of Si in zircon is similar to that of Ti, but about an order of magnitude faster than diffusion of Hf and two orders of magnitude faster than diffusion of U and Th. Si diffusion is, however, many orders of magnitude slower than oxygen diffusion under both dry and hydrothermal conditions, with the difference increasing with decreasing temperature because of the larger activation energy for Si diffusion. If we consider Hf as a proxy for Zr, given its similar charge and size, we can rank the diffusivities of the major constituents in zircon as follows: D _Zr < D _Si << D _{O, dry} < D _{O, ‘wet’}.     

The effects of gas flaring on crops in the Niger Delta,Nigeria

Flaring of associated gas from oil exploitation has several consequences on the environment. This study explores the spatial variability effects of gas flaring on the growth and development of cassava (Manihot esculenta), waterleaf (Talinum triangulare), and pepper (Piper spp.) crops commonly cultivated in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Data was collected on soil and atmospheric temperature and moisture at a 20-m interval, starting at 40 m from the flare point to a distance of 140 m. Lengths and widths of crop leaves, height of crop plants and cassava yields were measured at the specified distances. The amino acid, ascorbic acid, starch, and sugar constituents of the cassava yields were determined. The results suggest that a spatial gradient exists in the effects of gas flares on crop development. Retardation in crop development manifests in decreased dimensions of leaf lengths and widths of cassava and pepper crops closer to the gas flare point. Statistical analysis also confirms that cassava yields are higher at locations further away from the flare point. In addition, the amount of starch and ascorbic acid in cassava decreased when the plant is grown closer to the gas flare. High temperatures around the gas flare appear to be the most likely cause of this retardation. The waterleaf crop, on the other hand, appears to thrive better around the gas flare point.     

How a court, a commissioner and a lobby group brought European transport policy to life in 1985

Until the mid-1980s, transport policy was considered by many as one of the least successful domains of the European integration project. However, from the early 1990s onwards, there are clear signs of a single European transport policy, along with the accompanying implementation of infrastructure projects. What is the explanation for such a change in pace? This paper aims to offer insight in these processes by looking at the mechanisms which form and transform this policy domain. To understand the state of a policy domain and its dynamics over time an institutional approach is taken. Two concepts in political science, ‘policy arrangements’ and ‘supranational governance’ are combined and used as a framework to analyse the European transport policy domain. This analysis describes the development of several elements: organisations, rules, the transnational society, power, resources, and the central transport discourse. It demonstrates that all of these elements have developed from an intergovernmental setting towards a more supranational one. This development was slow in the first decennia when European transport policy was rather passive, but it picked up speed in the 1980s and 1990s. In the pivotal year of 1985, pressure from the transnational society resulted in a rapid change of the rules, the resources and the discourse.     

The effect of naturally acidified irrigation water on agricultural volcanic soils. The case of Asembagus, Java, Indonesia

Acid water from the Banyuputih river (pH  3.5) is used for the irrigation of agricultural land in the Asembagus coastal area (East Java, Indonesia), with harmful consequences for rice yields. The river water has an unusual composition which is caused by seepage from the acidic Kawah Ijen crater lake into the river. This unique irrigation setting allows the study of soil acidification in situ. This paper assesses the effects of volcanogenically contaminated irrigation water on the chemical properties of the agricultural soils.The changes in soil properties were evaluated by comparing samples taken from the topsoil and sub-soil (1–3 m depth) from areas irrigated with acid water and areas irrigated with neutral water. The field survey thus resulted in four soil categories. Bulk soil composition, organic matter content, moisture content and particle size distribution were determined. Reactive phases were quantified with the selective extractions 1 M KCl, 0.1 M Na-pyrophosphate and 0.2 M acid ammonium oxalate (AAO).By comparing the four soil categories it is shown that the use of the naturally polluted irrigation water has had a large influence on the chemical composition of the topsoil. The composition of the soil solution has changed over the entire investigated soil profile. Furthermore the acid irrigation water has strongly modified the composition of the reactive phases, extracted as KCl, pyrophosphate, and AAO extractable elements, and also the bulk soil composition has been significantly modified. Overall this has resulted in the net dissolution of some elements and the net precipitation of others. The changes in the reactive phases and bulk soil composition are only apparent in the topsoil (0–20 cm) but not in the deeper soil.     

Mineralogy and geochemistry of El Dorado epithermal gold deposit, El Sauce district, central-northern Chile

Summary The El Dorado Au-Cu deposit is located in an extensive intra-caldera zone of hydrothermal alteration affecting Upper Cretaceous andesites of the Los Elquinos Formation at La Serena (≈ 29°47′S Lat., 70°43′W Long., Chile). Quartz-sulfide veins of economic potential are hosted by N25W and N20E fault structures associated with quartz-illite alteration (+supergene kaolinite). The main ore minerals in the deposit are pyrite, chalcopyrite ± fahlore (As/(As + Sb): 0.06−0.98), with electrum, sphalerite, galena, bournonite-seligmanite (As/(As + Sb): 0.21−0.31), marcasite, pyrrhotite being accessory phases. Electrum, with an Ag content between 32 and 37 at.%, occurs interstitial to pyrite aggregates or along pyrite fractures. Pyrite commonly exhibits chemical zonation with some zones up to 1.96 at.% As. Electron probe microanalyses of pyrite indicate that As-rich zones do not exhibit detectable Au values. Fluid inclusion microthermometry shows homogenization temperatures between 130 and 352 °C and salinities between 1.6 and 6.9 wt.% NaCl eq. Isotope data for quartz, ankerite and phyllosilicates and estimated temperatures show that δ¹⁸O and δD for the hydrothermal fluids were between 3 and 10‰ and between −95 and −75‰, respectively. These results suggest the mineralizing fluids were a mixture of meteoric and magmatic waters. An epithermal intermediate-sulfidation model is proposed for the formation of the El Dorado deposit. Author’s present address: J. Carrillo-Rosúa, Dpto. de Didáctica de las Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad de Granada, Campus de Cartuja, 18071, Granada, Spain     

Boron incorporation into mullite

Summary Boron-doped mullites were synthesized using aluminium nitrate-nonahydrate, tetraethoxysilane and boric acid in a sol–gel process with subsequent annealing at 950 and 1300 °C for five hours. Two different bulk compositions with constant Al₂O₃ contents (60 and 70 mol%, respectively) and varying SiO₂ plus B₂O₃ contents were investigated. X-ray powder diffraction analyses yielded a linear decrease of the lattice parameters with increasing bulk B₂O₃ content, which was interpreted as to be due to boron incorporation. Related to the increasing boron content, corresponding infrared spectra revealed a slight and continuous shift for most of the absorption bands. These data show that mullite is able to incorporate large amounts of boron into its structure (up to about 20 mol% B₂O₃ depending on the bulk composition of the starting materials). Infrared analyses suggest that boron is incorporated into the mullite structure in form of planar three-fold coordinated BO₃ groups. Author’s address: A. Beran, Institut für Mineralogie und Kristallographie, Universit?t Wien-Geozentrum, Althanstra?e 14, 1090 Wien, Austria     

National flood discharge mapping in Austria

This article presents the approach and the results of a study in which 30, 100 and 200 year return period flood discharges were estimated for 26,000 km of Austrian streams. Three guiding principles were adopted: combination of automatic methods and manual assessments by hydrologists to allow speedy processing and account for the local hydrological situation; combination of various sources of information including flood peak samples, rainfall data, runoff coefficients and historical flood data; and involvement of the Hydrographic Services to increase the accuracy and enhance the acceptance of results. The flood discharges for ungauged catchments were estimated by the Top-kriging approach with manual adjustment to the local flood characteristics. The adopted combination approach proved to be very efficient both in terms of the project time required and in terms of the accuracy and acceptability of the estimated flood discharges of given return periods.     

The role of the volatile phase for REE and Y fractionation in low-silica carbonate magmas: implications from natural carbonatites, Namibia

Summary Two bimodal carbonatite complexes in Namibia of Cretaceous age are explored as to the presence and composition of a coexisting carbonatitic fluid. The Kalkfeld and Ondurakorume complexes contain both Ca- and Mg/Fe-carbonatites, composed of calcite alone or calcite with ferroan dolomite, fluorapatite and strontianite. The major element evolution in the bulk rocks from s?vites to beforsites is due to crystallization of calcite and fluorapatite. All carbonatites show a negative Y anomaly in normalised REE plots. Fractionation is accompanied by successively lower HREE contents between Tb and Yb, expressed by the ratios Nd/Ho and Ho/Lu. The evolution of this downward-facing hump goes along with decreasing Y contents in bulk rocks and minerals. All this requires an additional phase coexisting with the carbonate liquid during fractionation. Comparison between the bulk rocks and the expelled fluid shows that the latter had preferentially accumulated the HREE and Y. Further evidence for this process are hydrothermal, HREE, Y-rich fluorites in other carbonatite complexes which reflect the composition of the expelled fluid. The high strength of fluoride complexes suggests that fluoride complexing in the carbonatitic fluid is the process responsible for extracting HREE and Y from the carbonatite magma, leaving fractionated carbonatite rocks depleted in these elements. The geochemical evolution of carbonatite magmas along fractionation has therefore to be considered in a melt-mineral-fluid system. Correspondence: B. Bühn, Instituto de Geociências, Universidade de Brasilia, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil