Comparison of NATM and umbrella arch method in terms of cost,completion time,and deformation

In all kinds of tunnel excavations, especially those excavated in cities, it is important to control surface settlements and prevent damage to the surface and subsurface structures. For this purpose, in weak rocks and soils, the umbrella arch method (UAM) has been used in addition to the new Austrian tunneling method (NATM). NATM and UAM are the best-known classical methods used in tunnel excavation. In classical tunneling, NATM is usually preferred in normal rocks. However, in some cases, NATM may be insufficient. UAM is a very effective alternative especially in soils and weak rocks. In soil and weak rocks, UAM is especially necessary to prevent excessive deformations. Selection of UAM or NATM is based on the following factors: cost comparison of NATM and UAM, allowable deformations, quality of rock or soil, application time of NATM and UAM, availability of skilled workers, and qualification level of the workers. Therefore, selecting the excavation method in these kinds of grounds is vital in terms of achieving the project goals in time, managing the project costs effectively, and controlling the probable deformations on nearby structures. A critical issue in successful tunneling application is the ability to evaluate and predict the deformations, costs, and project time. In this paper, application times, costs, and deformation effects are compared between NATM and UAM in sensitive regions at the Uskudar-Umraniye-Cekmekoy metro project (UUCMP). Also, efficiency of the deformation control of UAM is demonstrated by using the 2D numerical analysis method. UUCMP is part of the Istanbul metro network. The tunnels have a cross section of 75.60 m² for NATM and 83.42 m² for UAM. Geology in this section is composed of weak sandstone. Diabase and andesite dykes are also rarely observed. This study shows that the construction cost of UAM are 1.7 times more expensive than NATM. Although application time of UAM is 2.5 times longer than NATM, it is 2.5 times more efficient in controlling the deformations. This efficiency in controlling the deformations is confirmed via two-dimensional numerical analyses.     

Climatic significance of natric horizons in Permian (Asselian) palaeosols of north-central Kansas, USA

Columnar structured horizons have been recognized in ancient coastal palaeosols of several Lower Permian (Asselian) stratigraphic units of north-central Kansas. These strongly developed columnar, polygonal-shaped peds are characteristic of sodium-influenced (natric) argillic horizons, and are commonly indicative of semi-arid to arid environments. Evaporite features above and below these palaeosols support the conclusion for a dry palaeoclimate. The columnar peds are typically 3–15 cm in diameter and exhibit domed tops. Fine clay fills the cracks between the columnar peds, and is generally of a darker colour than the peds. Each natric horizon has a low value and chroma colour, apparently the result of carbonate accumulation. The natric horizons in these Permian palaeosols appear to have been partially influenced by sodium-rich groundwaters. Root traces and root moulds are found between peds in all natric horizons, indicating plant succession after columnar ped formation. These sodium-influenced palaeosol profiles occur as part of a spectrum of palaeosol types that indicate cyclical climate change associated with glacioeustatic sea-level fluctuations.     

Determining the optimum cell size of digital elevation model for hydrologic application

Scale is one of the most important but unsolved issues in various scientific disciplines that deal with spatial data. The arbitrary choice of grid cell size for contour interpolated digital elevation models (DEM) is one of the major sources of uncertainty in the hydrologic modelling process. In this paper, an attempt was made to identify methods for determining an optimum cell size for a contour interpolated DEM in prior to hydrologic modelling. Twenty-meter interval contour lines were used to generate DEMs of five different resolutions, viz., 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 m using TOPOGRID algorithm. The obtained DEMs were explored for their intrinsic quality using four different methods, i.e., sink analysis, fractal dimension of derived stream network, entropy measurement and semivariogram modelling. These methods were applied to determine the level artifacts (interpolation error) in DEM surface as well as derived stream network, spatial information content and spatial variability respectively. The results indicated that a 90 m cell size is sufficient to capture the terrain variability for subsequent hydrologic modelling in the study area. The significance of this research work is that it provides methods which DEM users can apply to select an appropriate DEM cell size in prior to detailed hydrologic modelling.     

The nature and distribution of fluids during amphibolite facies metamorphism, Naxos (Greece)

On the basis of fluid inclusion evidence, pervasive influx of deep-seated CO₂-rich fluids has been invoked to account for mid- to upper amphibolite facies (M2_B) metamorphism on the island of Naxos (Cyclades, Greece). In this paper, mineral devolatilization and melt equilibria are used to constrain the composition of both syn- and post-peak-M2_B fluids in the deepest exposed levels of the metamorphic complex. The results indicate that peak-M2_B fluids were spatially and compositionally heterogeneous throughout the high-grade core of the complex, whereas post-peak-M2_B fluids were generally water-rich. The observed heterogeneities in syn-M2_B fluid composition are inconsistent with pervasive CO₂-flushing models invoked by previous workers on the basis of fluid inclusion evidence. It is likely that few CO₂-rich fluid inclusions on Naxos preserve fluids trapped under peak metamorphic conditions. It is suggested that many of these inclusions have behaved as chemically open systems during the intense deformation that accompanied the uplift of the metamorphic complex. A similar process may explain the occurrence of some CO₂-rich fluid inclusions in granulite facies rocks.     

An evaluation of Rock-Eval pyrolysis for the study of Australian coals including their kerogen and humic acid fractions

Rock-Eval pyrolysis was performed on lithotype and depth profiles of Tertiary brown coals and a coalification profile of Permian bituminous coals. The humic acid and kerogen fractions from the coals are also investigated by this technique along with the effect of base extraction on the kerogen fraction. Structural variations between brown coal lithotypes are primarily reflected by changes in Oxygen Index Value. This result was supported by the results from the depth profile (same lithotype). A wide range of Hydrogen Indices (independent of depth) but similar Oxygen Indices were observed. The results from the Qualification profile show that the Oxygen Indices varied with rank, whereas Hydrogen Indices show a greater dependence on coal type. A plot of $\text{H}\text{C}$versus Hydrogen Index produced good correlations with the brown (0.77) and bituminous (0.90) samples lying on two separate lines intersecting at high H/C. This result (and higher correlation for bituminous samples) reflects the expected dependence of hydrogen index on oxygen content (present primarily as hydroxyl groups). A high correlation (0.95) between quantitative IR data (K 2920 cm mg^?1) and Hydrogen Indices supports previous conclusions regarding the dependence of Hydrogen Indices on the aliphatic structure of the samples.     

Tveitite,a new calcium yttrium fluoride

Tveitite is a new mineral with formula of the type $\text{Ca}{}_{\mathrm{1?x}}\text{(}\text{Y, RE}\text{)}{}_{\mathrm{x}}\text{F}{}_{\mathrm{2+x}}\text{where}\text{x}$ is approximately 0.3. It is found in a cleavelandite pegmatite at Høydalen in Tørdal, Telemark, S. Norway. The sub-cell is thought to be monoclinic, $\text{a}\text{′=3.924,}\text{b}\text{′=3.893,}\text{c}\text{′=5.525, ß=90°26′,}\text{Z}\text{=2}$. The structure is very similar to that of fluorite and can be described in terms of a pseudo-cubic cell $\text{[1}\text{1}\text{0]}{}_0\text{= 5.527, [110]}{}_0\text{= 5.527,}\text{c}\text{= 5.525, α = 90°18′, γ = 89°37′}$ which contains approximately 1[YCa₃F₉]. The mineral shows twinning in at lest three different directions giving a grating structure probably due to high-low inversion. DTA studies show an inversion point at about 670°C. Material heated above this temperature gives X-ray diffraction patterns corresponding to yttrofluorite (a₀ 5.528). The effect of trivalent ions on the stability of fluorite is discussed.     

29Si MAS NMR relaxation study of shocked Coconino Sandstone from Meteor Crater, Arizona

 ²⁹Si nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to characterize the silica phases in a moderately-shocked Coconino sandstone from Meteor Crater, Arizona. The spectra were recorded using direct polarization, magic-angle spinning, and variable delay times in a saturation recovery pulse sequence. Resonances observed at -97.3, -107.1, -113.9 and -191.2 ppm were assigned to a densified hydrous form of amorphous silica (D phase), quartz, coesite and stishovite phases, respectively. The relative percentages were estimated as 1.7, 80.6, 16.4 and 1.3% for the D, quartz, coesite, and stishovite phases. The power-law recoveries of the magnetization for the quartz and coesite phases can be interpreted in terms of their phase geometries. Received: January 3 1997 / Revised, accepted: August 4 1997     

Retrofit-reinforcement of cohesive soil slopes using high strength geotextiles with drainage capability

A series of geotechnical centrifuge physical modeling tests were performed to assess the potential use of a new cost-effective mechanically stabilized earth system for retrofitting marginally stable cohesive slopes. The proposed system utilizes the dual functions of reinforcement and drainage by directly inserting high strength non-woven geotextile strips into slopes, with little or no excavation required behind the slope face. The system significantly increases the factor of safety of potentially unstable cohesive slopes, and can be constructed at less expense and more rapidly than conventional mechanically stabilized earth systems.